^J l.A.W.«<H.M.M.«.H.M.H..H.A.M.Mj,j <j<j^ 

COMMON SENSE 




FOR 

DAJRYMEIM 

GEO.W.BLAKE. 




Class _S.rE.3il 
Book ^Q>2y— 
CopyiightN^_ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOStC 




GEORGE H. BLAKE 

AUTHOR 



Common-Sense 
Ideas for Dairymen 



Being an Exposition of the Methods Pursued by the 

Most Practical and Successful Dairymen 

in the Elgin District 



EMBRACING INSTRUCTION IN 

Selection, Feeding and Gare of Dairy Cattle, Corn and 

Clover Culture, Care of Milk, Milk and Cream 

Testing, and Cheese and Butter Making in 

the Factory and on the Farm, Etc« 

.-'(I (jliu;jtiai.edi _ , ^ 



BY 

GEO. H. BLAKE 



Published' by 

THE ELGIN DAIRY REPORT 

Elgin, Illinois. 



-b^ 



o^ 



<^^' 



Library of Congress 

Iwo Copies Received 
FEB 11 1901 

SECOND COPY 



Copyright 1900, 
BY E1.GIN Dairy Report. 



The Elgin Dairy Report, Printers, Elgin, Hi. 



Note. 



Geo. H. Blake, the author of this book is one of the 
most efficient butter and cheese makers and all around 
dairymen in the Elgin District. His long experience in 
dairy work, coupled with a mind analytical in its tendency, 
peculiarly fits him for the compilation of a book of this 
character. He is not a theorist, therefore each method 
described and recommended in this work has been 
thoroughly tried and proven by practical application. 

Mr. Blake was one of the pioneer members of the 
National Dairymen's Association and has ever been active 
in promoting the best interests of that organization . He was 
elected a member of the lower house of the Wisconsin 
legislature in 1894, and was made chairman of the dairy 
and food committe of that body. He also presented a bill 
for the protection of public health and to prevent 
adulteration, deception and fraud in the manufacture and 
sale of dairy products. This bill became a law and has 
proven to be one of the most effectual measures bearing 
upon dairy questions ever incorporated in the statutes 
of Wisconsin. 

We beg to acknowledge the receipt of cuts of cows 
from the Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn., 
through the courtesy of Prof. Haecker, illustrating the 
various types of cows in the herd at the time of making the 
tests regarding the cost of producing a pound of butter. 
Other cuts have been kindly furnished by the 
manufacturers, to whom credit is given in connection with 
the illustrations. The Publishers. 



Preface. 



This book has been compiled with the design to present 
to all dairj-men, but more especially the dairy farmers, a 
concise and simple explanation of the important principles 
necessar}' for them to understand, that success may follow 
their efforts. 

The purpose aimed at has been to point out the waj^ to 
success rather than to anal}-ze each of the numerous steps 
leading up to it. It is impossible to prepare a standard and 
handing it to the dair^-man say to him, "here are 3'our 
directions, follow them." 

The successful dairyman cannot adopt machine methods 
in performing his work: neither can he, like light, always 
move in straight lines. He must often diverge to escape 
contact with obstacles. His mission is to know conditions, 
apply methods and make note of results. To aid in the 
accomplishment of these objects is the purpose of this book. 

The quotations given are from the sa>-ings and writings 
of prominent dairymen, whose eminent success in this line 
of work is sufficient guarantee that the instruction they 
impart is valuable and trustworth5\ In short no theory is 
advanced nor method recommended in this book, the 
correctness of which has not been thoroughly demonstrated 
by practical experiment. 

The whole trend of the book is to awaken in the 
dair^-man a realization of the truth that knowledge, adapta- 
bilit^'and enthusiasm are the cardinal factors of his vocation, 
and that if he possesses these all else will be made easy and 
comprehensive. G. H. B. 



Contents. 

Introduction 

CHAPTER I Selection of Dairy Stock 

CHAPTER II . . . Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock 

CHAPTER III Corn AND Clover Culture 

CHAPTER IV Milk and Cream Testing 

CHAPTER V Care of Milk 

CHAPTER VI . . ..Buttermakers and Buttermaking 

CHAPTER VII Cheesemaking 

CHAPTER VIII Creamery Building 

CHAPTER IX Farmers' Dairy Clubs 

CHAPTER X * . . . . Miscellaneous Facts 



Introduction. 



Progressive dairying, like every other great industry, 
is fast demonstrating the fact that only those who familiarize 
themselves with each detail pertaining to their vocation., 
succeed. It is the "survival of the fittest" here as in 
ever}- other pursuit of life. And success awaits only him, 
who by intelligent thought and method, removes obstacles 
and overcomes difficulties that otherwise would breed 
discouragement and ultimately lead to failure. 

It is sluggishness of thought and the dairy farmer's 
unwillingness to face his own errors that often stands 
between him and success. He is loath to give up old 
customs for new, preferring to trudge along in the same rut 
rather than take the trouble to familiarize himself with 
new methods, that he may apply them in his business. He 
is inclined to trust to chance, hoping that something may 
' ' turn up ' ' w^iereby he will be able to do better next year 
than he did this. Such a course cannot be otherwise than 
disastrous in the end. The dairy farmer who trusts in 
chance pins his faith to a bubble. In the pursuit of his 
vocation he is dealing directly with nature and her laws are 
immutable. He may make mistakes, she does not. 
Neither will she forgive him liis errors, but will hold him 
to a strict account for all his short-comings. 

It is reasonable to believe that wherever there is a 
luxuriant growth of grass, a salubrious atmosphere and 
plenty of pure water, there the dairy cow will thrive and 
the dairy farmer will prosper if he conducts his business 
along proper lines. But with all these advantages of climate 

[9] 



10 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

and soil, prosperity will not be his unless he becomes 
teachable. If he does not know the truth he must search 
for it. He must be willing to take in knowledge and to see • 
himself as the facts show him to be. In short he must 
become an expert in his business, quick to detect whatever 
stands in the way of success, and skillful in removing it. 

To do this he must be a thinker, and he must think 
toward expression. If his cows are poor replace them with 
better ones. If his butter and cheese are inferior in quality 
he must improve them. He must not be satisfied with 
anything short of the best. He should know crude labor 
can milk a cow, crvide labor can start a churn, or pour the 
rennet into a vat of milk; but it takes skill born of a 
knowledge acquired only by patient study and thought, to 
search out and develop the best functions of the dairy cow 
or give to butter and cheese the superior qualities the 
market demands. 

How is it that one farmer will realize from seventy to 
eighty dollars a 3-ear from each cow in his herd, while his 
neighbor will receive but little more than half that amount? 
The conditions of soil and climate are practically the same 
in both cases, yet one farmer becomes richer while the other 
grows poorer. The reason is easy enough to understand. 
One exercises a wider range of knowledge in the 
management of his business than does the other. One 
carries with him in his work energy and thought; while the 
other shuts his eyes to the truth and trusts in luck. One 
keeps a record of his own errors and by skill subdues them; 
the other being blind to his own failings sees nothing to 
improve. One is determined to have the best that study 
and experience can give; the other is content to take 
whatever comes, so long as he does not have to think for it. 
In short one is an animated success; the other a dead failure. 



Introduction. 11 

The question very naturally suggests itself here, what 
is the prime element of success in dairj'ing? There can be 
but one answer to this query. It is the possession, by the 
dairy farmer, of a comprehensive knowledge of what 
constitutes correct management in the pursuit of his 
vocation. That success may be surelj^ achieved it is 
necessary for him to have good cows, and that the)' should 
be properly fed and cared for. In order to select good cows 
he must first know what constitutes a good cow and how 
the presence of desirable qualities in the animal ma}^ best 
be determined. He must also know how and what to feed 
her, that these qualities may be developed up to the limit 
of her productive capacity. Therefore, it is evident that 
knowledge must lead if the dairy farmer would advance in 
the direction of successful achievement. 

To a great many farmers the term ' ' knowledge " as it is 
used in its relation to the dairy industry, implies a scientific 
research, to fathom the intricacies of which seems beyond 
their powers of comprehension. To them the term 
' ' scientific ' ' stands for something so mysterious and 
formidable that they dare not grapple with its problems. 
The result is, they become discouraged at the beginning and 
often make but little effort in the direction of improved 
method . 

This is a wrong conception of what a scientific 
knowledge of dairying really implies. It does not, as is 
often supposed, mean the acquirement of a knowledge based 
on abstract or speculative principles. It implies rather, 
information founded on a right conception of the relation 
of effects to causes, and perhaps should, more properly 
speaking, be called an art as its attainment depends almost 
wholly on practice and performance. Therefore the dairy 
farmer, who, noting an effect, is able to go back over the 
trail and locate the cause, has learned the art of dairying 



12 Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

and is applying scientific principles in the pursuance of his 
vocation. Such a man ma}' justly be styled a scientific 
dairyman. 

The farmer who follows this line of research is 
continuall}' advancing from the known to the unknown; 
inductivel}' acquiring new ideas and conceptions, which 
constantly lift him higher and broaden the range of his 
mental vision. 

One of the most conspicuous benefits resulting from 
the growth and development of the dairy industr}-, is the 
stimulus it gives to a desire for a greater knowledge, not 
only of dairying, but of all agricultural pursuits. The 
individual who, by study, has mastered the more important 
features of dairying, is a better general farmer than is the 
one who has never engaged in dairy work. The reason for 
this is, the study necessar}- to the acquirement of success as 
a milk-producer, broadens the farmer's conception of all 
phases of farm labor, and he gradually becomes a scientific 
farmer. His efforts in any department of agriculture are 
methodical; revealing the possession of a trained mind that 
thinks toward expression. He has learned to reason from 
cause to effect. He is not satisfied with merely knowing 
that a certain thing does happen as a fact, but he searches 
out the why of the thing and seeks to bring it into relation 
with other facts, thereby enlarging the basis of its 
application. 

The question may be asked, why does dairying awaken 
a greater desire for the acquirement of knowledge than do 
other lines of agricultural labor? We believe it to be 
because of the influence exerted on the individual by his 
being brought into frequent contact with more progressive 
minds and with greater individual achie\'ement than he 
himself possesses or attains. It has been said that nothing is 
great only by contrast. We might reverse the expression 



Introduction. 13 

and sa}' nothing is weak until compared with something 
stronger. Certain it is, that our faihires are never so 
apparent to us as when we measure them by some other 
person's success. Our ignorance of the facts relating to any 
subject is brought home to us with crushing effect when 
exposed by the searchlight raj'sof a more enlightened mind. 

In like manner the dairy farmer is brought into contact 
at the creamer}- or at the shipping station with those 
engaged in the same business as himself, affording him 
frequent opportunities to draw comparisons between their 
achievements in dairy work and his own. He notes that 
some are more progressive than himself; for with no greater 
natural adA'antages than he possesses the}^ far outstrip him 
in the returns they receive from their herds. Their cows 
are producing more and richer milk and the check the>- 
receive for it at the end of the month is from 60 to 100 per 
cent larger than his own. These are object lessons which 
are sure to make an impression, and he at once begins a 
search for the causes which render their dairies so much 
more profitable than his. He begins to study their methods 
and as he investigates, facts he did not know existed are 
brought to light, which in turn reveal other facts, unveiling 
and exposing his errors in the management of his dairy 
work, while at the same time they point the way to 
improved methods and larger returns. The knowledge 
these conditions bring to him creates a desire for further 
information and so he advances b}- slow gradations from a 
state of ignorance to one of enlightenment, until at length 
he developes into an expert dairj-man. 

The old-time farmer who followed the system of single 
crop production, did not enjoy these opportunities for 
comparing the results of his own labor with that of others 
engaged in like pursuits. Thus his isolation robbed him 
of the incentive to studv and research afforded bv such 



14 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairy-men. 

comparisons. The old-time farmer might be ignorant 
of basic principles and j-et achieve partial success, but 
the dairy farmer must be informed regarding his work 
or he will surelj' fail. 

Therefore the trend of the dair}^ industry is to broaden 
the farmer's perception and add to his store of useful 
knowledge. In the first place, because he must understand 
certain principles, if he would succeed; and afterwards, 
because the acquirement of a limited knowlege creates a 
desire to possess more. 

Dairj'ing has, and is bringing many benefits to the 
American farmer. It is enriching his soil, rendering it 
more productive, thereby adding to the money value of his 
farm. It is teaching him economy by enabling him to do 
business on a cash basis. It is paying his debts and lifting 
the mortgage from his farm. But, desirable as are these 
advantages it has brought to him a greater benefit, one on 
which all others may be said to depend, a mind trained, 
broadened and enlightened by a rich store of practical 
knowledge. 



CHapter 1. 

Selection of Dairy Stock. 

A well known and eminently successful dairyman has 
said, '' The basis of improved dairying is selection of cows. 
Feeding, training and handling, surely are factors 
of influence, but cannot be said to be. the basis of pro- 
gressive dairying." This truism should commend itself to 
every farmer who is engaged in, or contemplates entering 
upon the vocation of dairy farming. For however well 
fortified he otherwise may be, against the many difficulties 
with which the dairy farmer must contend, if his cows are 
of inferior grade much of his labor is thrown away. The 
first question then for the dairyman to understand is — 
what constitutes a good cow? 

The same writer, in enumerating the quaHties of a 
good cow, says, 

"(1) She must be a good feeder and have good assim- 
ilating powers. From four to nine years old; an easy 
milker; kind disposition, medium size, and thoroughly 
feminine in her organization. 

(2) She should be characterized by an inherent 
tendency to convert her food into milk and have an 
organization especially adapted to that work." 

He should also have added, she should be distinguished 
for the superior quality and quantity of milk she gives and 
the persistence of its flow. 

MUST BE A GOOD FEEDER. 

The truth of the assumption that a cow, to be profita- 
ble in the dairy, must consume a large quantity of food is 
too self-evident to admit of argument. At the very 

[15] 



16 Contmon-Scnse Ideas Jor Dairymen. 

threshold of his business is the dairy farmer confronted by 
a problem on the solution of which his success or failure 
largely depends. One that he cannot solve unless he is 
fortified by a knowledge of what constitutes a good dairy 
cow. He must know that to be valuable in the dairy she 
must be a good feeder. Her body is a chemical laboratory 
in which, by nature's mysterious process, food product is 
transformed into milk, and, if her powers of assimilation 
are of a high order, the . more food she consumes the larger 
quantity of milk she will give; but do not lose sight of the 
fact that this result is wholly dependent upon her assimi- 
lative capacity. Many cows, up to a certain point, convert 
the food they consume into milk, but an 5' increase beyond 
this limit is converted into flesh and the milk 
increase is suspended. Such an animal does not possess 
the higher qualities that characterize the perfect dairy 
cow; the cow which every progressive dairyman desires 
to possess. 

The true dairy cow will continue to increase the flow 
of milk up to the limit of her digestive capacit3\ That is 
to say, as her ration is gradually increased after freshening, 
the flow of milk will increase, in like proportion up to the 
point where she will refuse to partake of a larger quantity 
of food. This increase should be gradual, and as near as 
possible, uniform from day to day; not reaching the limit 
of her capacity for six weeks or t\A o months from the time 
of freshening. If at that time she will consume from 
fourteen to sixteen pounds of concentrated food a day, and 
give an adequate return in milk without any perceptible 
increase in flesh condition, she has proven herself a fit 
cow for the dairy. 

QUALITY OF MILK. 

Another point to consider in the selection of a 
dairy cow, is the quality of the milk she produces. A few 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 17 

j^ears ago the dairy farmer considered the quantity of milk 
a cow furnished to be the gauge b}- which to judge her 
fitness for a place in his herd. The cow that gave the 
greatest quantity of ruilk was considered the most valuable, 
and those animals whose pedigrees traced back to such 
a cow were eagerly sought after by dairymen. In those 
days factorymen paid their patrons in proportioi to the 
number ( f pounds of milk the}' delivered to the factory, 
without regard to its productive qirality. Hence the more 
milk a cow gave the more valuable she was to her owmer, 
but not always so to the fac'.oryman. These conditions 
have changed since the introduction of the Babcock test. A 
cow's fitness for a place in the dairy is now based upon the 
quality as well as the quantity of milk she gives. The 
question now asked, is not only how many pounds of miik 
will she give each day, but how much butter and cheese will 
it produce? Where quantity was once the only point 
of excellence considered, now qirantity and qualit}' are both 
requisite qualifications. The more progressive dairymen 
have a definite standard of butter production and any cow 
falling below that standard is put out of the herd. 

The knowledge of what the individual animal in 
a dairy herd is producing is not so difficult to obtain 
as it may at first appear and will certainly present 1:0 
obstacles to the thrifty dairy farmer. Take account of the 
food each cow consrrmes in a given time, and its cost, then 
figure the value, at the market price, of the butter and 
cheese she has produced during the same period, and it can 
ea-ily be determined on which side of the balance sheet she 
belongs. Ask the average dairy farmer how much butter 
this or that cow in his herd produces m a year, and 
it is safe to assume he cannot tell you. He knows in 
a general way, though often vaguely, the production 
of his herd as a unit, but little or nothing of the prodirctive 



18 Cotmiion-Seiise Ideas for Dairymen. 

capacity of the individual animals that compose it. He 
has no accurate data regarding the cost of maintaining the 
different cows in his herd, and seldom even knows what it 
costs him a year to feed his herd as a whole. He may be 
milking a dairy of twenty-five cow\s, twenty of which are 
giving him fair returns for the feed they consume; while 
the other five are charging him more in rations for every 
pound of butter they produce than he can get for it in the 
market, and consequently are absorbing a good portion 
of the profits realized on the other twenty cows. The farmer 
who conducts his business along these lines may possibly 
be ahead at the end of the 3'ear; if so it is his good fortune 
rather than the result of correct management. This lack 
of knowledge of the merits of the individual animals 
comprising their herds, is costing the dairj' farmers of this 
countr}' thousands of dollars ever}^ y^ar, which might be 
save-1 to them if they would give more attention to details, 
and, by research and experiment master this important 
factor of progressive dairying. The successful merchant 
keeps an accurate account of his assets and liabilities, and 
at the end of each 3'ear takes account of stock, that he may 
know the exact condition of his business; determine what 
particular lines of goods are in greatest demand and what 
lines are dead stock; know the qualities in the several lines 
he carries, that meet with the most ready sale in the 
communit}' where he is doing business. He studies 
carefully and critically his own business methods; adhering 
to and improving those which experience has shown to be 
successful, while those found to be unprofitable are 
discarded. The dairj^ farmer, to be successful, must do 
business along similar lines. His cows are his stock in 
trade, and good business method demands that he know the 
money-producing value of each of them. He should have 
an accurate knowledge of — 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 19 

First. How much feed does each cow consume in a 
given time, and the cost of the same. 

Second. The quantit}- of milk she gives in return for 
this feed and its butter-producing quality. 

Third. The persistence of her flow; or in other words, 
the length of the period of lactation, and. 

Fourth. Her ability to impart to her off-spring her 
own constitutional qualities of excellence. 

It matters very little to what breed she belongs if, at 
the end of the year, she shows a good margin to her credit 
above what it has cost for her maintenance. 

INDIVIDUAL MERIT, VERSUS BREED. 

We do not wish to be understood as under-estimating 
the importance of breed. We would, however, emphasize 
the fact that successful dairying, involves not only a choice 
of breeds, but what is of greater importance, a choice 
of the individuals of that breed. Much is yet to be learned 
in regard to the secrets of animal nutrition, and if 
experimenters will abandon the practice of making 
comparisons between different breeds, and give more 
attention to individual animals, making experiments on the 
line of different types in railk production, progressive 
dairying would at once be lifted to a higher plane 
of excellence than it has yet attained. Because a certain 
breed of cattle is characterized by the development of specific 
qualities it does not necessarily follow that each individual 
animal of that breed possesses these qualities. The 
Americans are a progressive people, but not every American 
is progressive. Italy is called the land of song; but not 
ever}' Italian is a musician. Neither is every Jersey cow a 
good butter producer, or a Hblstein a good milker. While 
it is acknowledged wise and practical to select stock from 
the breed most distinguished for possessing the qualities 
desired, yet it is unsafe to depend upon breed alone. Select 



20 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymeti. 



from a certain breed if 3-011 will, but before giving the cow 
a place in your herd familiarize yourself with her individual 
qualities. 

Experiments made at the various experiment stations 
fully establishes the fact that breed alone cannot always be 
depended upon as establishing a cow's fitness for dairy 
purposes. In an address delivered before the National 
Cheese and Butter Association on "The Cost of Pro- 
duction," Prof. T. L. Haecker, of St. Anthony 
Park, Minnesota, has the following to say, bearing on this 
point: " At our experiment station during the past four or 
five years, I have devoted nearl}' all of my time to one 
subject, and that is the cost of production. I started out 
in this work in a sort of a general way, thinking perhaps 
we could get some information that would show the farmer 
what it would cost to make a pound of butter. Fortunately, 




-njiiiiiil 



SWEET BRIAR 

Experimeni Station, St. Anthony Park. Record— 6,3-14.6 milk, 371.49 butter. 

Cost per pound butter, 05.99. 

we had a very mixed herd at St. Anthon}- Park. It was 
composed of various breeds of cattle, and various types. 
The work was carried on for one year, weighing every 



Si lection of Dairy Stock. 21 

ration liefore it was given to the cow, and then making a 
record of that ration. When the cow was milked the milk 
was weighed and tested for fat. After this work had been 
carried on for a year, some very curious facts began to make 
their appearance. We compared the Holsteins with the 
Jerseys, the Shorthorns with the Guernsej's and the natives, 
and tried in that way to get some results as to what was 
the best breed, And what was the result? Simply this: 
The figures show that certain cows of any one breed would 
produce much better results than others of the same breed 
under exactly • the same circumstances. So nothing 
satisfactory- resulted from this comparison After the year's 
work was completed and I noted this peculiar variation 




OLIVE. 

Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park. Kecord— 7,005.3 milk, 284.25 butter. 

Cost per pound butter. 05.CS. 

between the different cows, the question arose: Why does 
this cow produce butter for eight cents per pound, while 
that one charges sixteen cents? Why does this Holstein 
produce butter for nine cents a pound, while another 
Holstein charges us seventeen cents? Why does this 
Shorthorn produce a pound of butter for twelve cents, while 
the oiher Shorthorn charges eighteen cents?" 



22 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

Thus you see after a 3'ear devoted to the most rigid 
and accurate experiments it was clearl}- demonstrated that 
when the production of butter is the object in view, the 
breed of cows comprising a herd cannot be depended upon 
as certain to give satisfactory results. In this herd at 
St. Anthony Park, experiments showed no superiority 
of one breed above another in the production of butter, as 
a breed, -vshile it clearly demonstrated the excellent qualities 
of individual cows in all the different breeds experimented 
upon. What should we learn from this? Does it not show 
that butter production is an inherent quality in cows of a 
certain type irrespective of breed? While this type may 
prevail more extensively in some breeds than it does in 
others, yet, wherever it is found, whether in the thorougbred 
Jersey or in the scrub native, the same points of excellence 
are in evidence; the same superior qualities are found to 
exist. Prof. Haecker continued his experiments by adopting 
another plan. Instead of comparing different breeds he 
made two divisions of the herd; putting the cows that 
charged the most for butter on the one side, and those that 
charged the least on the other. On one j-ide were 
Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, Holsteins and natives, and 
the same was the case on the other side. Similar methods, 
regarding care and feeding, were observed in both 
divisions. After pursuing this course for a year it was 
found that the cows that had a tendency to lay on flesh, gave 
on an average, two hundred and sixty- seven pounds 
of butter- fat per annum, at a cost of 13.8 cents per 
pound; while the spare cows in the other group gave 
an average of three hundred and thirty-seven pounds 
of butter fat at a cost of 11.6 cents a pound. It was also 
observed that some in the group of spare cows did not do 
as well as others in the same group, both as to butter yield 
and cost of production. Similar variations were also 



Selection cf Dairy Stock. 



23 



noticed in the beefy group. After carefully comparing the 
record of each animal in the herd with the annual yield 
and cost of feed, it was clearly show.n that the greater the 
inclination to lay on flesh the greater was the cost 
of butter production 

To further carry on investigation in this line, and have 
it cover a period when an exact record could be kept 
of all food consumed by each cow, the winter season was 
chosen and a record was kept of the amount and kind 
of ration fed to each cow, and the amount of milk and 




FORTUNE, 

Experiment Station, St. Anthonj- Park. Record— 9,111.5 milk, 492.99 butter, 

Cost per pound butter, 4.27 cents. 

butter-fat produced. In summing up the winter's work, 
variations similar to those observed in the yearly 
record, were noticed; that is, the cow with a beefy tendency 
was shown to be less profitable than the spare cow. As 
before remarked, there were variations in each group, and 
the next problem to be solved was, why these variations? 
As demonstrated by the experiment referred to above it 
was found that, while, generally speaking, the spare cow 
was more profitable than the cow with a tendency to lay on 



24 CoiiiDion-Sciise Ideas for Dairyiitcn. 

flesh, yet lliere were exceptions, showing that oth€r 
coaditions existed that had a bearing on the problem. To 
demonstrate this fact the herd was again divided; this time 
into four groups, based upon conformation. In the firtt 
group was placed the cows having a strong tendency to 
grow meat; this group charged for feed, on an average, 17.5 
cents for a pound of butter. The second group was 
composed of cows that had less tendency to lay on flesh, yet 
were quite plump and smooth at the close of the winter's 
work. These charged for feed an average of 15 cents for a 
pound of butter. Group three was composed of all the 
cows that were spare and angular in conformation, but 
lacked in depth through the middle of the body. This 
group charged, on an average, 14.6 cents for a pound 
of butter. 

The cows assigned to group four were spare, but 
w'ere deep through the middle of the body. They charged, 
on an average, 12. i cents to produce a pound of butter. 
Another fact worthy of record is, that each individual cow 
in this group charged less for a pound of butter-fat than did 
any cow in the other three groups. In other words, the 
cow making the poorest showing in group four, charged 
less for a pound of butter than did the cows making the 
highest record in either of the other three groups; and the 
more spare the cow. and the deeper she was through the 
middle of the body, the less she charged for a pound 
of butter. To make the result more clear, it was found bj^ 
comparing the record made by each cow in the herd with 
the amount of feed each consumed, that the cow that gave 
the least returns carried the most flei^h and lacked 
depth of body, while those making the largest returns 
belonged to the foi.rth group; and the more spare the cow 
and the deeper the body the greater returns for the food 
given her. To make the experiment more conclusive two 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 25 

COWS were selected, one from group three ?nd one from 
group four, representing the two shapes of spare cows. Each 
ration fed to these cows was weighed and charged up to 
them at market price. The two cows hid about the same 
weighs but the representative of group four consumed 
sixteen pounds of digestible food per day, while the cow 
from group three could take but twelve pounds; and 
the difference in the butter-fat they prodrced was in like 
proportion. Here were two cows, neither of which had a 
tendency to convert food into flesh; being nearly of the 
same weight, yet one of them could eat sixteen pounds 
of digestible nutriments per day, while the other could eat 
but twelve pounds, thus showing that the animal having 
great depth of body has a large digestive capacity. To 
otherwise state it, the measure of the middle of the body is 
an index of the amount of food an animal can digest. 

Another type was compared with the representative 
of group four; a cow from group two — the group that 
converted a part of their food into milk and a part 
into flesh. The rations fed to these cows were charged 
up to them as in the case above referred to. The two cows 
came in at about the same date, and the returns they gave 
for the food they consumed, was, for a time, practically the 
same. At the end of four months, however, it was found 
that the representative of group two was charging TI.7 
cents for every pound of butter she produced, while the 
cow from group four was only charging 4.8 cents for each 
pound she produced. As just observed, at the beginning 
of the period of lactation the two cows were pretty evenly 
matched in their weekly butter yield; but at the close of the 
winter's work there was a marked difference. The cow 
from the fourth group was still yielding 12.6 pounds 
of butter per week, while the representative of group two 
was giving only 4.4 pounds. During a period of four 



26 



Couimon, Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



months the cow from group four gave 210.5 pounds 
of butter at a cost of 4.6 cents per pound, while the cow 
from group two gave only 123.7 pounds of butter at a cost 
of 7.8 cents per pound. 

From these several experiments we learn that the cow 
having a tendency to convert a large portion of her food 
into flesh, made the poorest showing and was, therefore, an 
unprofitable animal to keep in a dairy herd; yet it is 
a fact that a great many farmers would select such a cow 
in preference to one of the angular representatives of group 




ETHEL. 

Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park. Record— 4,099.8 milk; l')7.04 butter. 

Cost per pound butter, 10.85 cents. 

four. Having never made a study of the qualities indicated 
by the different types of cows it is natural they should 
choose the ones most symmetrical in form. Their want 
of information as to the outward signs of certain inherent 
qualities, renders them incompetent to judge of a cow's 
merits by her conformation; so they base their opinion 
of her value on her general appearance. If she is 
plump and sleek, it is conceded she is a good cow. If she 
is spare and angular, her appearance stands in evidence 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 27 

against her, *and she is rejected. We observe in the last 
experiment alluded to that, in the short period of four 
months, the spare cow with depth of body gave in return 
for the food she consumed, 86.8 pounds more butter than 
did her more comely companion; and we see further, that 
she charged only four cents more for making 210.5 pounds 
of butter than did the sleek representative of group two for 
making 123.7 pounds. By carrying the comparison a little 
further and figuring the market price of butter at twenty 
cents per pound we find that the spare cow made $42.10 
worth of butter for $9 68 worth of feed while the beefy cow 
made only $24.74 worth of butter for $964 worth 
of feed, making a net difference of $17.32 in favor of the 
spare cow. It is evident, therefore, that had the place 
occupied in the herd by the representative of group two 
been supplied by a cow the counterpart of the one from 
group four, the receipts of that dairy would have been 
increased $17.32; while the expense for feed would only 
have been increased four cents. It is admitted that the 
showing made by the cow from group four is above the 
average, even for good cows; j'et a great many dairy herds 
throughout the northwest, contain cows representing as 
wide a difference in merit as do the two referred to -in this 
comparison; and the dairy farmers continue feeding inferior 
stock from, year to year, all the time complaining of hard 
times, and wondering how it is that others succeed so 
much better than they do. In all probability a little research 
would show the cause to be their own lack of judgment in 
the selection of cows. 

The experiments referred to in the preceding 
pages, are only a few of the many that have been made 
along similar lines. Great care has been exercised in these 
experiments that the results might be authentic and 
reliable. A single comparison of different types has not 



28 Connnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

been considered sufficient on which to base a positive 
conclusion. So numerous trials .have been made, extending 
over a period of several years, and the results have been 
practically the same in every instance. The .«;pare cow, with 
great depth through the middle of the body, lias invariably 
made the best showing. And, as before stated, it should 
be noted as significant, that in the experiments nu de at 
St. Anthony Park, the cow giving the smallest returns in 
the group of spare cows, having depth of body, exceeded 
the product of the best cow in either of the other three 
groups. Right here we wi.'-h to insert a simple method 
Prof. Haecker employs in determinirg the merits of a dairy 
cow. lie sa) s: "There's one point in a cow to look at first, 
and the same point in the calf, which is this: with the ej^e 
measure the distance from the tail about half way down from 
the rump, as it drops straight down to the rear line of the 
thigh, and the greater the distance between these points and 
the more curving the thigh, the better the cow." He 
further adds: "Irately we had a delegation of some 
eight}' farmers from Meeker count}', to visit the Experiment 
Station. They went down into the live stock room and 
we brought in six cows, and as the}- had some doubts about 
our ability to discover the kind of calf that would make 
the best dairy cow, we sent for the calves, and they were 
simply miniatures of the cows. Now, there are also a great 
many other points to be considered in judging of a cow; but 
we always try to do away with the little details, laying more 
stress on fundamental principles, so that ever}- one with an 
ej-e can see for himself. When we have decided as to the 
disposition an animal makes of food, the next thing is how 
much work will the cow do from day to day, and that is 
answered b}' the depth of the middle of the body, or the 
grist-mill that the animal carries, and the larger the mill 
the o-reater the arrist." 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 



29 




The physical characteristics given below should also 
be considered in selecting cows for dairy purposes. 

In thoroughbred Jerseys the following standard 
of excellence, adopted bj^ the American Jersey Cattle 
Club, is indicative of superior dairy qualities: 

(1) The neck should be thin, rather long, with clean 
throat, and not heavy at the shoulders. 



30 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



Should be broad across the loin. 

Barrel should be long, hooped deep and broad at 



(2) 

(3;) 

the flank. 

(4) Hips wide apart; rump long. 

Fore udder full in form and not fleshy. 
Hind udder full in form and well up behind. 
Teats rather long, wide apart and squarely 



(5) 

(6) 

(7) 
placed. 

(8) 



Milk veins prominent. 
To these should be added a quiet disposition and 
apparent rugged constitution. 




LILY ELLA. 

Record— 12,282.68 lbs. milk; average per cent, fat, 6.42: butter, 912.S pound.s. 

Property of James H. Beirne, Oakfield, Wis. 




<! 


R 


Z 




o 




o 


m 


u 







^ 


« 


1 


o 


•c 


t< 


o 


fa 


o 


o 


« 


r/) 






(H 


>^ 




H 


^ 


<! 




t<) 


3 



32 ConiDion Sc?ise Ideas for Dairymen. 

Points of excellence for Guernsey cattle as adopted by 
the American Guernsey Cattle Club. 

(1) Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at 
base of horn, on udder, teats, and body generally. 

(2) Skin loose and mellow with fine soft hair. 

(3) Milk veins long and prominent. 

(4) Udder full in front. 

(5) Udder full, and well up behind. 

(6) Udder large, but not fleshy. 

(7) Barrel round and deep at flank. 

(8) Hips and loins wide. 

(9) Rump long and broad. 

Points of excellence for Holstein-Friesian cattle, as 
adopted by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America: 

(1) Head showing full vigor, elegant in contour. 

(2) Forehead broad between the eyes; dishing. 

(3) Face contour graceful, especially under the eyes; 
medium in length, broad muzzle. 

(4) Neck neatly joined to head and shoulders, and 
of good length. 

(5) Chest low, deep and full. 

(6) Barrel well-rounded and large abdomen. 

(7) Loin and hips broad, full long and level. ■ 

(8) Milk veins long and large. 
(q) Teats large and well spread. 

Points of excellence for Pure-Bred AjTshire cattle as 
• adopted by the A3-rshire Breeders' Association: 

(1) Head short; forehead wide; nose, fine between 
the muzzle and ej-es; muzzle, large; eyes full and lively; 
horns, wide set on, inclining upwards. 

(2) Neck, moderately long and straight from the 
head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the 
under side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging 
symmetrically toward the shoulders. 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 33 

(8) Fore-quarters — Shoulders, sloping; withers, fine; 
chest, sufficiently broad and deep to insure constitution; 
brisket and fore-quarters light, the cow gradually- increasing 
in depth and width backward. 

(4) Back, short and straight; spine well defined, 
especially at the shoulders; short ribs, arched; the body 
deep at the flanks. 

(5) Hind-quarters, long, broad and straight, hook- 
bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat ; thighs deep and 
broad; tail, long, slender, and set on level with the back. 

(6) Udder, capacious, and not fleshy, hind part broad 
and firmly attached to the body, the sole nearh* level and 
extending well forward; milk veins about udder and 
abdomen well developed ; the teats from two and one-half to 
three inches in length, equal in thicknes,(the thickness 
being in proportion to the length ) hanging perpendicularly, 
their distance apart at the sides should be equal to 
one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to about 
one-half of the breadth. 

(7) Legs, short in proportion to size. 

(8) Skin, yellow, soft and elastic, and covered wdth 
soft, close, woolly hair. 

(9) Color, red, of any shade, brown, or white; or a 
mixture of these colors. 

(10) Average light weight, in full milk about one 
thousand pounds. 

The foregoing standards of conformation apply to pure 
blood in the several breeds referred to, but should also be 
distinguishing features in graded stock. 

INDIVIDUAL TESTS IN THE HERD. 

Having considered at some length the different types 
that indicate the presence of desirable qualities in a dairy 
cow, the question now arises: Are these outward 



34 



Couimon-Sense Ideas Jor Dairymen. 



manifestations an unfailing index of the real merit of the 
animal ? 

It must be admitted they are not. While ever}- good 
cow must essentially conform to a considerable degree to the 
types and shapes referred to in the preceding pages, yet it 
is possible for her to possess these characteristics and still 
be an unprofitable animal in the dair}-. So much depends 
upon development and training that, though the lines 
of conformation indicative of excellent dairy qualities may 
be present, their influence may have been warped or 
destroyed by mismanagement in rearing the animal. 
Therefore, unless we know the training a cow has received 
from birth to maturity, we cannot depend upon the type 
she represents as being a sure index of her merit as a dairy 




BELLE. 

Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park. Record— 5,762.0 niill<; 284.56 butter. 
Cost per pound butter, 8. 62 cents. 

cow: For example: she may give a large flow of milk of a 
very poor quality, or she may be satisfactory as to quality 
but wanting in quantity and persistence. These conditions, 
if they exist, can only be determined by a knowledge of the 
work she is really doing from day to day, and the sum total 
of her achievement during the whole period of lactation. It 
is well understood the chief points sought in a dairy cow 



Selection of Dairy Sfock. 35 

are the quantity and quality of milk she is able to give. The 
quantity is very easily determined, but to ascertain the 
quality requires a little more labor and skill. In speaking 
of the quality of the milk we have reference only to its 
fat content, without regard to the other solids it 
contains. Before the invention of the Babcock test it was 
not an easy matter to determine the fat content of the milk 
of each cow in a dairy herd. The introduction of that 
machine, however, has removed the many difficulties that 
stood in the way and rendered it a comparatively eas}' task 
to keep a record of what each cow is doing. The entire 
process is quite simple, and can be readily learned by 
anyone who is competent to manage a herd. With this 
means of measuring a cow's value in the reach of everj' 
farmer, he can offer little apology for not knowing the 
individual merits of his cows. Had it not been for 
the Babcock method of testing milk the comparisons given 
in the preceding pages could not have been made with 
any degree of ac uracy. By the use of it, however, the 
experiments were made possible and the important facts 
they brought to light were established. The Babcock test 
is a reliable censor, and no dairyman who uses it 
intelligently, need be ignorant of the individual worth 
of each animal in his herd. To the shrewd, progressive 
dairy farmer, the test machine is the most important 
item in his outfit, and so necessary has it become to him 
in determining the real status of his business that he would 
not attempt to manage a herd of dairy cows without it. By 
its use he is enabled to tell what he is doing from da}' 
to day, whether this or that cow is returning him a profit 
on the feed she consumes. By the proper use of the test he 
gains a knowledge of facts and conditions which those who 
do not use it can only guess at. The Babcock test is the 
best invention that has been made in the interests 



36 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

of dairymen, and if they fail to use it the loss will be 
their own. A dairy cow is in many particulars different 
from other lines of stock. The machine with which she 
does her work is on the inside. She may have all the 
external appearances of a good cow and still be 
unprofitable. Consequently if the farmer would know 
what a cow is worth he must test her. We do not mean 
by this that he is to carelessly procure a sample of her milk 
and take it to his factoryman to be tested, and when the 
work is done assume that the cow's value is determined 
by this one test. A cow should not be judged by one test 
or even by three or four. There ma}' be conditions which 
we do not know, that cause her to test high or low. In 
order to determine her value accurately she should be 
tested at least once a month during the entire period 
of lactation. At the end of the season the several tests 




LYDIA. 

Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park. Record 8,030.13 milk: 322.15 butter. 

Cost per pound butter, 7.16 cents. 

added and the average determined. By this means a very 
true estimate of her value can be formed. The farmer 
who has never tested his cows may rest assured a great 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 



37 



many unlocked for conditions will confront him when he 
begins the practice. The variations he wdll find in the 
productive qualities of milk from different cows will surprise 
him. He will find that the cow giving the smallest quantity 
does not, as is often believed, test the highest. Neither does 
the cow giving the most milk test the lowest. 

In the accompanying chart is given the result of a two 

days' test made by W. T. Styles of lyake Mills, Wisconsin. 

As will be observed, he has kept a record of the cost of the 

food consumed by each cow, and deducted the same from 

CHART NO. I. 





LBS 


MILK 


TEST. B 'TTEK 

1 


VALUE. 




COST 


OF FEED. 






Nov. 
30th. 


Dec. 

1st. 


Per 

Cent. 


Lbs. 
Pr Day 


Per 
Day 


Silage. 


Meal. 


Clover. 


Total. 


Profit. 












CENTS 


CENTS 


CENTS 


CENTS 


CENTS 


CENTS 


\ 


35 


36 


3.40 


1.38 • 


34.5 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


18.7 


2 


36 


36 


3.70 


1.53 


38.3 


6.2 


5 6 


4 


15.8 


22.5 


3 


32 


31 


3.15 


1.14 


28.5 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


12.7 


4 


31 


31 


3.55 


1.26 


31.6 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


15.8 


5 


23 


24 


3.40 


.92 


22.9 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


7.2 


6 


23 


24 


3.90 


1.05 


26 3 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


10.5 


7 


21 


24 


3.25 


.84 


21.0 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


5.2 


8 


20 


20 


3.90 


.89 


22 4 


6 2 


5 6 


4 


15.8 


6.6 


9 


22 


23 


2.95 


.733 


18.5 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15 8 


2.5 


10 


18 


22 


3.90 


.89 


22.4 


6.2 


5.6 


4 


15.8 


6.6 



the value of the butter she produced. The feeds given were 
ensilage, fiftj' pounds; middlings, nine pounds, and clover 
haj', ten pounds. He estimated the value of ensilage at 
$2.50 a ton, middlings $12.50, and clover $8.00. Nearly 
the same amount of feed was given to each cow. Fifteen 



38 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

per cent, was added to the fat test to cover the churn 
increase and twenty-five cents a pound was allowed 
for the butter. 

While in this herd of ten cows none were kept those 
two dajs at an actual loss, it will be noticed the profit varied 
from 22.5, cents the highest record made, to 2.5 cents, the 
lowest. The cow making the best showing gave in the two 
days, seventy-two pounds of milk, while the one making 
the lowest record gave forty-five pounds. In other words, 
the cow with the lowest record gave 62.5 per cent as much 
milk as the one having the highest record, but only about 
II per cent, as much profit. Had the relative value 
of these two cows been measured b}- the quantit}' of milk 
each gave, it will be readily observed how erroneous the 
conclusion would have been. 

In a paper read by C. L. Hill of Rosendale, Wisconsin, 
before a Farmers' Institute, on the importance of making 
fat tests, he cites an instance in his own experience that 
goes to show the utter futility of tr34ng to judge of the 
comparative value of a number of cows, by a comparison 
of the quantity of milk produced by them in a given time. 
He had two cows about the same size and condition and 
receiving the same feed and care that in a seven days' trial 
showed the following results: One gave 269.25 pounds 
of milk, an average of 38.5 pounds dail}-. The other gave 
183.5 pounds of milk, or 26 pounds daily. The first one 
gave II pounds of fat, or an average test of 4.1 per cent 
while the other gave 11.75 pounds of fat, or an average test 
of 5.7 per cent. Two other cows in his herd, tested in the 
same way for one week, show a like difference between the 
quantity of milk given, and its productive quality. The 
first gave 203.75 pounds of milk, making over 14.5 pounds 
butter, while the second, giving 197 pounds of milk, made 
but 1 1.5 pounds of butter. There was but six and 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 



39 



three- fourths pounds difference in the amount of milk given 

by these two cows, yet one produced three pounds more butter 

than the other. Differences as marked as these, and even 

CHART NO. II: 

SHOWING THE TEST FOR SEVERAL DAYS. 



NO. OF 


FII 

Amt 


iST 
Test 


SECOND 


THIRD 


FOURTH 


FIFTH 


AVE 

Amt 


RAGE 


cows. 


Amt 


Test 


Amt 


Test 


Amt 


Test 


Amt 


Test 


Test 


1 


18 


4.0 


21 


3.4 


37 


4.4 


36 


3.6 


34 


3.8 


29 


3.84 


2 


22 


4.0 


29 


3.0 


39 


4.6 


36 


3.7 


34 


3.7 


32 


3.80 


3 


16 


3.0 


22 


3.3 


38 


2.6 


33 


3.1 


32 


3.2 


28 


3.04 


4 


21 


3.2 


22 


3.6 


33 


3.3 


31 


3.3 


33 


3.4 


28 


3.36 


5 


17 


3.4 


21 


3.3 


21 


3.4 


24 


3.4 


23 


3.4 


21 


3.38 


6 


9 


4.2 


16 


3.2 


23 


3.9 


24 


3.8 


28 


3.7 


20 


3.76 


7 


20 


3.2 


24 


3.0 


29 


2.8 


24 


3.6 


24 


3.6 


24 


3.24 


8 . 


15 


3.6 


18 


3.0 


26 


3.4 


20 


4. a 


20 


4.0 


20 


3.60 


9 


16 


4.2 


25 


3.7 


19 


3.8 


22 


3.8 


26 


3.9 


22 


3.88 



covering a wider range of divergence can be found in a 
large majority of the dairy herds throughout the northwest 
The Babcock test, however, opens the way to improvement; 
making it possible to base the estimate of a cow's value on 
her actual productive capacity, rather than on the quantity 
of milk she gives; but, as before stated, her merit or want 
of merit should not be judged by one or two tests. 

The farmer should also be careful to make the test 
when the cow is in as near a normal condition as 
possible. If she is in heat, off her feed, has in any way 
been unduly excited, or exposed to extreme changes 
of temperature, do not test her, as the result would have 
little value as showing the productive quality of her 
milk. Remember the immediate result of an abnormal 



40 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym,en. 



condition of the animal is a high test, followed by a reaction 
and low test. Hence, if a cow has from any cause become 
physically deranged, do not test her while in that condition; 
nor until her bodil}^ functions have regained their normal 
equilibrium. Prof. Farrington sa3'S that when a cow in the 
World's Fair test showed an abnormal per cent of fat, the 
superintendent would go immediately to the barn and take 
the cow's temperature. They would nearly always find 
her feverish . There were some days a cow gave nearly twice 
as much butter as the daj" before. A test made on either 




HOUSTON. 

Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park. Record— 8,797.8 milk; 512.84 butter. 

Cost per pound butter, 4.17 cents. 

of these days would have been unreliable. The Guernsey 
cow that made the highest weekly record for that breed in 
the World's Fair test (i6^ pounds) was fourth among the 
Guernseys in production, in the ninety day test, and the 
lowest in the thirty day test. 

These comparisons go to show that it requires good 
judgment and much patience and time, to establish beyond 
a doubt the actual productiveness of the dairy cow. This, 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 41 

however, to the dairyman who is in the business for profit 
should breed no discouragement. 

KEEPING MILK RECORDS. 

In testing a cow, samples from two consecutive 
milkings should be taken, mixed together, and, if possible, 
the test should be made at once: Or each sample may be 
tested as soon as taken, and the sum of the results divided 
by two, will give the average test for the two milkings. To 
illustrate: a sample from a cow's milk in the morning 
contains 4.9 per cent of fat; a sample taken from the same 
cow's milk in the evening shows 5.1 per cent of fat; the 
sum of these two tests is 10 per cent, which divided by two 
gives 5 per cent, the average test for two milkings. The 
amount of butter-fat this represents can be ascertained by 
taking 5 per cent of the number of pounds of milk the cow 
gave at the two milkings. Another, and perhaps a more 
reliable method, is a composite test, covering a period 
of one week, taken once a month, beginning the second 
month after freshening and continuing during the period 
of lactation. This will give a very accurate result of the 
cow's work. Of course, a record of the amount of milk she 
gives, during the entire period, must also be kept if you 
would know how much butter she has produced. To do 
this, a milk record must be kept; without it you will not be 
able at the end of the 3^ear, to tell within several hundred 
pounds of how much milk each cow in your herd has 
given. Some you will estimate too high and some too low. 
A cow, at her flush, may give a large mess of milk, but 
wanting in persistence, gradually decline, until at the end 
of the year her record will fall below that of the cow giving 
at first, a smaller quantity of milk, but with greater 
uniformity and persistence, 

Mr. C. L. Hill states that one of his herd gave 41.75 
pounds of milk, daily, at her flush, and in three hundred 



42 



Cotnnion-Sense Ideas for Dairytnen, 



FORMS FOR MILK SHEET TO BE USED IN THE COW-BARN. 





rt 




:^ : 


s 1 


r>^ 


rt 


rfi 


fO 




6 


o 


h4 


■* 


O X) 


O 
iz; 

o 


H 


h? 


•* 






!« 


;^ : 


> 


.Q 


^ 




o 


n 


^ 


0\ 


•= t: 


u 


o 


hT 


c\ 






hI 


r-H 


-SI 




s 












\o 




J3 


^ 




bo 

□ 








c 




M 




o 
iz; 


H 


iJ 


ON 






o 

2- 


1-5 


M 


to 
















rt 


^ 


he 


















o 
o 


o 


i4 


C<1 














o 


(A 

h4 


:5t : 


8 .^ 

ft be 




S 




















H 






Si o 

o *^ 

S -a 


>o 


rt 




«D 










6 




« 
^ 
a 




o 


H 


h4 


ro 




> 

"a 








^ 


a 






a 


o 


^ 












CO »- 

ho 


u 





►4 






o 
(J 


c 
'a 


w 

^ 


^ : 












^ 













hJ 


•d a 


d 


o 


42 


^ 














15 












IS 


« 


^ : 


he 








o 


•4 


00 


.2 0. 


o 
u 


1 








M 








m ■*-' 










he 




















o 
I? 


c 
'c 
> 




^ : 

00 




d 
iz; 


5 




in 






o 
(J 


he 
C 

'5 

o 




8 : 


a a 


1 

u 


be 

E 
o 


ih 


























c4 

d 





'X 


00 

ro 








d 


^ 


00 • 




fS 


t-J 


M 


rt a 


Z 










ho 








d 








•2 a 

<L» m 


o 
u 


c 
o 


h4 


O 




he 
c 
"S 


i4 






^_, 








o 


H 






o; bo 

4, a 


d 


o 


►4 


00 




he 








u 






1-1 


iz; 

o 
u 










be 

c 



?! 


J) 

i4 


1/5 




o 


k. 


o 




-t-" 















Q 


r-l M 


o 

M-c 


1 


ABW 


o 


rH M 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 



43 



days gave 5,400 pounds; while another giving 36 pounds a 
day at her flush, gave 8,050 pounds in the same time. It is 
evident, therefore, that to possess an accurate knowledge 
of what a cow is doing, a daily record of the quantity 
of milk she is giving must be kept. To do this, provide 
yourself with a set of scales for weighing milk, then prepare 
a sheet of paper after the manner shown in the chart, tack 
it on a board, and hang it in the cow-barn. Allow two 
columns for each cow; writing her name or number at the 
top of the column; at the left of the columns, write the days 
of the month in a perpendicular line. In the first column 
place the amount of milk the cow gives in the morning, and 

FORM FOR PAGE IN STOCK BOOK. 

cow NO. 1. 



1900 


Amount 
Milk. 


Test 


Butter 
Yield 


Price 
per lb. 


Value 


Cost of 
Feed 


Profit 


Jan . . . . 


108C 


3.5 


44.1 


25 cents 


$11.02 


$4.74 


$6.28 

































in the second place the total for the morning and evening. 
Thus: A cow gives in the morning sixteen pounds of milk 
which place in column one; at night she gives fourteen 
pounds, which added to the sixteen pounds gives thirty 
pounds, the total milk for the day. Place this in column 
two. At the end of each month these milk sheets should 
be added and the amount of milk given by each cow, together 
with the per cent of fat her test showed for that month, 
should be recorded in a book kept for that purpose. At the 
end of the year add the monthly records and you have the 
amount of milk each cow has given during the year. 
Multiply this by the average per cent of the several tests 
made, and you have the butter-fat she has produced . 



44 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

If 3"ou have been progressive, and have kept an 
account of the amount and cost of the feed each cow has 
consumed during the year, 3'ou are enabled by these 
simple records to know exactly what each animal has done 
for you. 

This is what you should know, what you must know 
if you would master the problem of progressive dairying. 
The form herein given for a page in the stock book is simple 
and comprehensive and will require but little time to keep. 

Rule the page so it will contain eight perpendicular 
and twelve horizontal columns. Above these columns write 
the name or number of a cow whose record you are keeping, 
as shown in the form. Beginning at the left, write above 
each perpendicular column, the following phrases in the 
order named. The year, amount of milk, test, butter 
yield, price per pound, value, cost of feed, profit. In the 
first horizontal column write in the record for January, in 
the second for Februar}-, and so on throughout the 
year. These monthly records can be compiled from the 
milk sheet kept in the cow barn, and from the monthly test, 
the market price of butter, and the cost of feed. While 
it ma}' not always be convenient to weigh ever}- ration fed 
to stock, by weighing a few, the farmer can approximate 
very nearly the amount consumed daily by each animal 
in his herd 

RAISE YOUR OWN DAIRY STOCK. 

Having considered at some length the qualities 
possessed by a good dairy cow, and the several t3'pes that 
indicate the presence of these qualities, the question now 
presents itself: where, and how is the dairy farmer to 
procure her? If he could enter the herd of his more 
progressive neighbor and there select the cow he wanted 
the question could be easily answered; but this he cannot 



Selection of Dairy Stock. AS 

do. Neither can he hope to procure her from the dealers 
who ship cows by the carload into his community, for with 
few exceptions, these cows are the culls from dairj^ herds in 
some other section of the country. For example, a buyer 
from Illinois goes over into Iowa to purchase a carload 
of dairy cows. He is compelled to look for the stock among; 
the dairy farmers of that state, as cows cannot be found in 
sufficient numbers anywhere else. What is the result? The 
Iowa farmers, glad of the opportunity to weed out their 
herds, sell to him the inferior animals, while the}' retain the 
best cows in their own dairies. This is perfectly proper so 
far as the Iowa farmers are concerned, but how does it 
affect the dairymen of Illinois who purchase these cows at 
the highest market prices? Is it an}- wonder they often 
complain of the unprofitableness of dairy farming? Is it 
not the more surprising that they succeed at all? Yet it is a 
fact that this is the method by which a large proportion 
of the dairy herds of Northern Illinois are replenished; and 
what is true of Illinois is also true of other states. Wisconsin 
dairymen are supplied with the culls from the Iowa herds, 
while their own inferior stock is shipped down to the milk 
producers of Illinois; and so it goes on to the end of the 
chapter. It is encouraging to know, however, that 
progressive and far-seeing dairymen are ceasing to do 
business in this way. They have come to know that a dairy 
cow is a machine that will wear out, and it is possible for 
for her to possess very .favorable outward lines of confor- 
mation, and yet be an unprofitable animal to keep for dairy 
purposes. They do not under-estimate the importance 
of type, shape, and breed, in judging of a cow's merit, but 
they desire to know that the qualities of excellence thus 
typified have not been destroyed by improper care, overwork 
and general mismanagement. In short, they disbelieve that 
a dairv farmer in Wisconsin, or elsewhere, who intends to 



46 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

continue in the business is going to dispose of his best cows 

to dair3'men in other states. Hence they look with suspicion 

on the stock shipped into their districts, and are rapidly 

realizing the fact that the only safe place for the farmer to 

go for the dairy cow is among those of his own breeding. 

They see the futility of striving to build up the dairy 

industry with inferior cows and are already beginning to 

raise the standard of their herds by home breeding and 

selection. A distinguished dairyman has said: "There are 

two ways by which this may be accomplished — either by 

purchasing thoroughbreds with good pedigrees, and from 

individual merit, or by thoroughly and carefully testing 

each cow in the herd, and then from the very best of them, 

grade up by using a thoroughbred sire of good, approved 

merit." It is obvious that the second method is the more 

practical one for the average dairyman to adopt, as it is by 

far the less expensive. Not every farmer has the means to 

purchase a herd of thoroughbred dairy cows, but he can 

select the best from the stock he possesses, and make them 

the basis of an improved herd. The dairyman quoted above 

has the following to say as to how this can be accomplished: 

"After a dairyman has determined which are the best cows 

in his herd he should divide them into families, the same 

as the various breeds of thoroughbreds are. In order to do 

this accurately, it is best to keep a home herd book, and 

then label the cows and keep them registered in the home 

book. To rel}' entirely on one's memory is not a good way. 

To grade up the herd in this way is somewhat slow, but 

there are few things of much importance that are attained 

in a day. If this work is done faithfully to the end the 

result wiil be worth all the effort it requires." It should 

not be expected, however, that every calf gotten in this 

way will make a good dairy cow. There will be some 

failures. Some will not possess the qualities of excellence 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 47 

that characterize the mother. She may not have the power 
to transmit these qualities to her off-spring, or they may 
exist at birth and be subsequently destroyed by 
mismanagement in rearing the calf. Some may do better 
through their grand daughters than through their daughters. 
In order to determine these conditions the records must be 
carefully kept. The type or shape of the calf should be 
noted as soon as it is born, and if there is an absence of the 
physical characteristics which distinguish the good dairy 
cow, the calf should be rejected. If, on the other hand, it 
is a miniature of the mother, whose qualities you know to 
be good, then it should be selected. 

H. C. Taylor, the celebrated breeder of Jersey stock, 
says: "After a calf is selected it should receive its mother's 
milk from four to six days, then taught to drink, and 
gradually brought to a skim milk ration, accompanied with 
oats> bran and clover hay. This calf should be grown with 
an idea of developing a healthy, strong animal but not a 
fat one, and from the first day to maturity should receive 
no check in its growth." 

A calf matured in this manner will pay its way after 
the second year, and from the third year until it is nine 
years old, should be a source of profit to its owner. Another 
source of advantage possessed by the farmer who raises his 
own dairy stock over the one who does not, is the certainty 
that he will soon have surplus cows, of established merit, to 
sell. He will thus become in a few years, a dealer in 
high-bred dairy stock, as well as a milk producer; thereby 
opening to himself two sources of revenue from his business 
where but one existed before. This i« a very important 
point, for the dairyman who desires to achieve the greatest 
success in his business, to consider. Again the calf that is 
reared from its earliest life to maturity, on the same farm, 
surrounded by the same scenes and conditions, is, if properly 



48 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

cared for, contented and happy, and because of this, will at 
all times do the best work for which she is capable, providing 
she is healthy. On the contrary, if the cow is removed from 
her familiar surroundings, her usefulness is much impaired 
for at least a 5'ear, and perhaps forever. This is one great 
objection to purchasing cows that are shipped long 
distances. In speaking on this point Prof. Haecker cites 
the following incident which occurred at the Minneapolis 
Experiment Station: "There were two cows in our herd 
that had been together all their lives and had become very 
much attached to each other, but it became necessary 
to remove Fortune, one of them, and place her in another 
barn. As soon as Duchess found her mate gone; she began 
to hunt from stall to stall for her lost companion. She 
would go all over the pasture looking through the clusters 
of trees tr3'ing to find her. She suffered so much because 
of the separation that she rapidly fell off in the flow of her 
milk, in spite of all we could do. I went down to 
the other barn to see Fortune. She was glad to see me, but 
kept looking out of the window for Duchess, and she, too, 
had fallen off in her flow of milk. When these cows were 
together they would pass the whole v\ inter without any 
perceptible change m their flow of n ilk. How careful we 
should be; not only to feed our cows properly, but to do 
everything in our power to make them contented and 
happy. Then only can we hope to get the maximum 
return." 

It is evident, therefore, that contentment is an important 
factor in determining the achievement of the dairy cow, and 
should not be under estimated by the dairyman. 

Believing that a fact established by practical 
experiment, is worth any amount of theory, w^e will cite one 
more instance where home breeding has been found to pay, 
before closing this chapter. 



Selection of Dairy Stock. 



49 



J. H.Brown of Climax, Michigan, in a paper recently 
read before a Farmers' Institute, says: "We have made a 
specialty of growing clover, corn and potatoes, in crop 
rotation, and in wheat-growing. We changed our plans 
and went into dairying, because we were obliged to, and 
because we had been educated into seeing that it was much 
more profitable for us to do so. When we commenced we 




DIDO. 
Reocrd— Cost of butter fat 18.2 cents per pound. 

had cows of all kinds, and we had them all mixed 
up — several breeds in one animal. We found from reading 
dairy papers, bulletins, reports of the Experiment Stations 
and dairy schools, that it does not pay to keep that kind 
of a cow; so we began to look about us for an improvement 
in the line of a profitable dairy. On account of not having 
sufficient money, we concluded to raise these cows 
ourselves, instead of going out and spending three or four 
hundred dollars for registered cattle. We commenced with 
a pure-bred Jersey bull and a Babcock tester. We tested 



so Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

seven cows, and found that three of them were not paying 
for their board. These were weeded out and others put in 
their places. We have kept weeding out until we have a 
herd of grade Jerseys and Shorthorns that now average a 
little over one and one-eighth pounds of butter per day. 
Still we are not satisfied. Our aim is to secure a herd that 
will average each year three hundred pounds of butter per 
cow. We weigh the milk of each cow, and every two weeks 
'we have been testing the milk. From the record kept we 
know just how many pounds of milk each cow is giving, the 
average per cent of butter- fat, and can closely reckon the 
number of pounds of commercial butter that we make from 
that number of pounds of fat by adding one-sixth to 
the total fat." 

In concluding this chapter we will repeat what has 
already been said, that success in dairy farming cannot be 
achieved with inferior cows. However painstaking the 
farmer may be in feeding and caring for his stock, if they 
do not possess the inherent qualities that distinguish the 
milk-producing animal from the one bred for other 
purposes, he cannot succeed. He must have cows trained 
for the distinctive purpose of converting food into milk and 
butter. Then, with judicious management in their feeding 
and care, he has a right to expect that a reasonable measure 
of success will repay his efforts. 



CHapter 2. 

Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 

Next in importance to having good dairy cows is to 
know how^ to feed and care for them. In discussing the 
question of feeding the most important factor to consider is 
economy. This statement should not be interpreted as 
meaning, on how small a quantity of food can the farmer 
maintain his herd, but, how can he feed an ample quantity 
of the food products most readily assimilated, and 
appropriated to milk production, to the best advantage. An 
able writer on this subject says: "The most economical 
feeding depends on when, and where, and to what the 
feeding is to be done; on the kind, age, and purpose 
designed for the animal, and largely on the relative cost 
of different feeds." Therefore, what the dairy farmer 
should know, is: first, what kinds of food products are the 
best adapted to milk production, and second, how can these 
foods be obtained at the minimum cost. 

Then, to consider the first question, as to kind of food: 
We are told that the elements used up in the production 
of milk, are of the kind known as protein; hence the 
necessity for feeding protein foods. Protein is a gelatinous 
semi-transparent substance obtained from albumen, fibrin 
or casein, and is considered the basis of animal tissue and 
of some substances of vegetable origin. Protein foods 
include among other products, all the ordinary grains, 
though some grains are richer in this element than 
others. An eminent German chemist asserts that vegetable 
and animal protein are common. The albumen, fibrin 
and casein in milk, are obtained from protein foods and 



52 Comnion-Sense Ideas for Daii ynun 

are identical with the vegetable albumen, fibrin snd 
legumen, and are first formed in the vegetable before they 
are appropriated by the animal. Protein elements then, form 
the most essential articles of food for the dair\ cow; as 
scientific investigation has established the fact that the 
liberal feeding of food products rich in protein, will increase 
milk production. It must be borne in mind, however, that 
these foods fed in large quantities, m^tt-rially increases the 
cost of producion. 

COST OF PROTEIN FOODS. 

In studying the question of how and what to feed his 
cow-;, the farmer should consider the relative cost of food 
products and their influence on milk production. It is not 
so important for him to know what kinds of feed give the 
highest results as to quantity, as it is to understand the 
kinds and combinations that bring the most profitable 
returns. Feeds rich in protein are the most expensive, as 
the farmer usualh' has to go outside of his farm products 
to procure them. The question then, for him to determine 
is, will the increase in milk production warrant him in doing 
this? Will the difference in yield obtained, pay him for 
expending large sums of money in the purchase 
of bran, shorts, oil meal, etcetera, at high prices? The 
solution of this question depends entirel}' on the cost 
of these protein foods, the increase of yield produced 
by feeding them, and the price of milk and its products. 
If the outla}' equals, or exceeds the value of the increased 
milk production the farmer must depend more upon the food 
products raised upon the farm. Prof. Woll, of the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station, tells us that, "if a farmer arranges to 
have clover hay on hand, and oats and peas, he will have all 
the protein substances needed for the proper nutirtion of his 
dairy cows; and he will be independent of millers, oil 
companies, distillers and brewers." Few farmers, however, 



Feeding and Care oj Dairy Stock. S3 

are thus fortified, and the wisdom of what to feed, and in 
what quantities, must depend on market value'?. If the 
cost of carbonaceous foods, such as corn, silage, hay, etc., is 
about the same as that of protein foods, it is wise to feed 
larger quantities of the latter; but if protein, or nitrogeneous 
foods are the more expensive, feed only enough of them to 
bring the nutritive ratio down to about one to seven. That 
is to sa3^ one part nitrogeneous digestible matter to seven 
parts carbonaceous digestible matter. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS 

Numerous experiments have established the fact that 
there is ordinarily no great difference in the feeding 
value of the cereals and mill refuse feeds. Wheat bran at 
twelve dollars per ton is cheaper than oats at twenty-five 
cents a bushel. Wheat at fifty cents a bushel may be 
considered of similar value as barle}^ at forty cents a 
bushel, or corn at sixteen dollars a ton. According to Prof. 
Woll, the relative cost, as between the linseed meal or cotton 
seed meal on one hand, and bran or oats on the other, the 
latter are usually the cheaper feeds at our ordinary market 
prices; comparative feeding experiments of oil meal refuse 
feeds, and of cereals or flour mills refuse feeds, have failed 
to show any great superiority of oil meals over the last 
mentioned feeds. Thus cotton seed meal was found only 
one-fifth more valuable than corn for milk production, at 
the Pennsylvania Station, and oil meal only slightly m< re 
valuable than corn meal, at the Wisconsin Station, As the 
price of oil meal is usually about fifty per cent higher than 
corn meal, and double that of bran, while the difference is 
still greater between these and cotton seed meal, it is 
evident that, at usual prices, we ought not as a rule, feed 
more of these feeds than is necessarj^ to furnish variety and 
stimulate the appetite of the cow. In these respects, these 



54 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

feeds possess a value that cannot be measured by their 
protein content, or the content of any other single component. 

DIFFERENT FEEDS FOR DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 

It is impossible to give the component parts of a ration 
and say to a farmer, this should be your standard. While 
it is universally conceded by progressive dairymen, that 
heavy feeding pays, and that he who would succeed in 
dairying must feed liberally, yet the fact is equally well 
established that cows cannot all be fed the same ration with 
similar results. This is true both as to kind and quantity 
of feed given. The same kind of feed will have different 
physiological effects on different animals. For instance, 
one cow may be able to consume as high as ten or twelve 
pounds of corn meal in a da}-, and give ample returns for 
the same in milk production; while another cow would 
cease giving milk at once and go to laying on fat on a 
much smaller ration. Perhaps though, if the last mentioned 
cow was given a ration in which the food elements were 
differently proportioned her flow of milk might be increased 
up to the limit of her digestive capacity. These are con- 
ditions which must be noted by the farmer, and hy carefully 
stud3ang the physical tendencies of the different animals 
comprising his herd, he must adapt the ration fed to the 
cow's condition, stage of lactation, and assimilating powers; 
feeding her, when in full flow of milk, up to the limit of her 
assimilative capacity, and no farther. In answer to the 
question, what is the best ration to get the most milk from 
a cow, for the least money, an eminent dairyman has said: 
"That would vary somewhat according to the make up 
of the animal. If it was an animal inclined to lay 
on fat, you would have to be sure to have in that ration, a 
larger amount of protein food, than you would if she was 
strictly a dairy cow. A dairy cow that v/ill handle large 
quantities of carbonaceous food is the most profitable cow to 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 55 

keep, because the corn crop is the cheapest crop we can 

grow. If the cow is one inchned to put on fat; I would give 

her no corn; but I would give a dairy cow four pounds 

of corn, four of oats, four of wheat bran, and one and 

a half oil meal. I would feed her very largely on corn or 

clover silage; that would be the larger part of the 

ration, and this should be balanced by a grain ration so 

that she would consume about twenty-five pounds of organic 

matter. That will contain from fourteen to sixteen pounds 

of digestible food, and she ought to have that amount some 

way or other. 

WHAT FEEDS TO RAISE. 

Mr. H. C. Taylor tells us in an able article written by 
him, on "The Physiology of Milk Production," that a 
liberal supply of fluids is necessary for the production 
of milk. Hence, all green foods are beneficial, and no 
ration can supplant good green pastures and running 
brooks. Clover and corn silage for winter feeding, is 
the nearest approach to nature that has yet been attained. 
The same writer, in referring to rations for dairy 
cows, says: "The dairyman must have good food and he 
must have cheap food. Of course you have now, or will 
have a silo. Allow four tons, two hundred cubic feet 
of com silage for each cow. Cut up, and carefully shock, 
all corn that does not go into the silo. Do this when 
the ears are glazed and the stalks yet green. As you 
commence feeding silage, commence hauling in the corn 
and put it through your silage cutter, ears and all. Mix 
with silage equal parts, then sprinkle to a condition a little 
more moist than the silage. Allow it to lay twelve hours in 
your feeding hall, when you will find it warm, and the cattle 
will eat the whole of it and rehsh it." He adds, "you will 
be surprised to see how much stock that patch of corn will 
winter. If any one makes you believe this is not a well 



56 CovinionSense Ideas for Dairymen. 

balanced ration, you may add a little oatmeal, oil meal 
or wheat bran." 

CORN SILAGE. 

The importance of corn silage as a feed for dairy cows 
cannot be over-estimated. It is both cheap and milk- 
producing. Corn is the staple crop grown in the dairy 
districts of the central west, and, at prevailing prices, is the 
best and most economical for either fat or milk production. 
A considerable percentage of its food value is lost to the 
dairy farmer, however, if he fails to feed a large proportion 
of it in the form of silage. Most of the objections that once 
existed, as to the utility of feeding silage, in an}- considerable 
quantit}', to dairy cows, have been brushed aside, by the 
lavorable results of practical experiments. It is difficult at 
this day to find a progressive dairy farmer, especially in the 
west, who does not believe in the practical advantages 
resul ing from silage feeding. Indeed they would not 
attempt to conduct a dairy farm without it. It was once 
believed that silage feeding injured the flavor of dairy 
products. The fallacy of this claim, however, has been 
established bej'ond question; as practice has demonstrated 
that silage, properly kept and judiciously fed, improves 
the flavor of both butter and cheese. 

To the question recently asked in a Farmers' Institute 
in Wisconsin: "Does silage give a bad flavor to butter?" 
The following answers were given by some of the most 
practical and progressive dairymen of that, and other states: 

Mr. Brown, of Climax, Michigan, said: "We have a 
large condensing factory at Lansing, and they are using 
milk, made from silage, right along. Milk condensing is a 
business where any flavor that would be produced by 
the silage would be sure to affect the milk, but they have 
never had any complaints. I do not see why the feeding 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 57 

of silage should injure the flavor of milk, if it is handled in 
the right way and properly fed." 

Mr. Noyes, one of the largest manufacturers of butter 
in Wisconsin, said: "In the vicinity of where I manufacture 
butter, silage is fed in the right way, and we get no bad 
effects from it in the butter, while w^e are sure we do 
get good effects. It causes the cream to churn readily and 
gives the butter a good flavor." 

Mr. Goodrich, a manufacturer of high grade butter, and 
a conductor of Farmers' Institutes, said: "That was a 
question that bothered me for some years after I built 
a silo, and it was with fear and trembling that I sent 
my butter down to Chicago. After two shipments had 
been sent, made from the milk of silage-fed cows, the 
commission man voluntarih' wrote to me this, not knowing 
anything about what I had been feeding: 'Mr. Goodrich 
the flavor of 3'our butter is excellent; never so good before 
at this season of the year.' " 

Of course if j^ou feed rotten, mouldy and bad-smelling 
silage, 5'ou will have bad-smelling butter, but good silage 
will make fine flavored butter. 

SILAGE corn; when TO CUT IT. 

The variety of corn to be planted for the silo must be 
determined by climatic and other conditions. A variety 
that will give the best results in one section of the country, 
might be very unsatisfactory in another. Climatic 
conditions and the character of the soil, must, to a large 
extent, determine this question. It is well, however, to 
plant varieties that mature late. Corn that grows a 
tall, slender stalk, is well eared, and bears a heav}^ foliage, 
and does not mature too early in the season, will generally 
give the more satisfactory results; as the yield will be 
heavier per acre, the quality better, and the time of maturing 
renders it more convenient for silo filling. 



58 Co>ninon, Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

It has already been observed that the corn should be 
well matured before it is put into the silo. Mr. A. P. Noyes, 
of Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, who is an enthusiast on silos 
and silage, says: 'The dent varieties should be dented 
and the flint varieties glazed, before it is cut." 

Two very potent reasons exist why this is true. First, 
well matured corn will keep better in the silo, and 
second, it contains a larger amount of food materials, than 
it would if cut in an immature stage. Prof. Ladd, in an 
analysis of fodder corn cut at different stages of growth, 
obtained the following results. The area considered is 
one acre: 

Gross weight, when tasseled 18,045.0 pounds 

Gross weight; when glazed 32,295.0 pounds 

Water in crop, when tasseled 16,426.0 pounds 

Water in crop, when glazed 20,542 . pounds 

Dry matter, when tasseled 1,619.0 pounds 

Dry matter, when glazed 7,202.0 pounds 

Crude protein, when tasseled 239.8 pounds 

Crude protein, when glazed 643.9 pounds 

Crude fiber, when tasseled..., 514.2 pounds 

Crude fiber, when glazed. ...•••'.... 1,755.9 pounds 
Starch and sugar, when tasseled. .. . 653.9 pounds 

Starch and sugar when glazed 4,239.8 pounds 

Crude fat, when tasseled 72.2 pounds 

Crude fat, when glazed 269.0 pounds 

It will be readily seen b}' these figures that the nearer 
maturit}' the corn, the greater the amount of food material 
it contains. It is obvious then, that economy would 
dictate, if no other reasons existed, that the crop be allowed 
to stand till the corn is well glazed, or as long as the leaves 
will keep green, before cutting for the silo. The figures 
given above suggest another fact worthy of consideration. 
That is the doubtful utilit}' of sowing corn broadcast, to be 
fed to dairy stock, in an immature state, during the late 
summer months and early autumn. Such fodder, unless 



Feeding and Care of Dxiry Stock. 59 

supplemented by a heavy grain ration, posesses but little 
value; analysis having demonstrated that it contains only 
about ten per cent of dr}- matter, the other ninety per cent 
being water. 

To illustrate more full}^ the actual nutritive content 
of such fodder, the following comparison is given : 

The chemical composition of milk, according to 
Foster, is — 

Casein 48 parts 

Albumen 5 parts 

Fat 45 parts 

Sugar 40 parts 

Salts 5 parts 

Water 857 parts 

Total 1000 parts 

These figures show that milk contains about 14.3 per 
cent of solids. Of these solids, 4.5 per cent is fat; leaving, 
after the fat has been taken from the milk, 9.8 per cent 
of solids. Therefore skim milk contains 9.8 per cent 
of solids, while green fodder corn that has been sown 
broadcast contains but ten per cent of solids; being scarcely 
any richer in food material than skim milk. By a 
comparison of these figures the farmer can see the inferior 
quality of corn sown broadcast as a food for dairy cows. 

SILAGE, VERSUS DRY CORN. 

While it is true that corn fully matured contains a 
considerably larger amount of food materials than it does 
when cut in the glazed stage for the silo, experiment has 
shown, however, that a large percentage of these materials 
are saved by feeding corn in the form of silage than when 
it is fed in the dry state. When fed as silage it is also more 
nutritious and palatable. 

Prof. King; has demonstrated by frequent experiments 
that in feeding from the silo only about ten per cent is lost 



60 Co»imonSe?ise Ideas for Dairymen. 

in spoiled silage, and dry material. He estimates that the 
average farmer who is a good dairyman, can save, under 
proper conditions, from 88 to 90 per cent of the feeding 
value of the corn crop when fed in the form of silage; 
whereas only from 60 to 75 per cent is saved when the crop 
is cured and fed dry. 

CLOVER HAY AND SILAGE. 

Clover, either in the form of hay or silage, is both an 
economical and ideal feed for dairy stock. Economical, 
because the farmer who has a plentiful supply of clover, either 
in the form of hay or silage, is relieved from the large 
expense incurred by purchasing high-priced concentrated 
feeds. Clover is rich in protein elements, and when fed 
with corn meal or corn silage greatly increases milk 
production. The raising of clover is also economical 
because of the fertility it brings to the soil. 

Clover silage is estimated to contain about 20 per cent 
more feeding value than corn, and is usually considered 
cheaper than corn. Mr. Noyes says clover silage costs him 
from seventy-five cents to one dollar a ton, while corn silage 
costs him from one dollar to one dollar and twenty-five 
cents a ton. He adds that the highest yield he ever had 
from corn is fifteen tons per acre. He has also obtained as 
high as fifteen tons of clover per acre. Experienced farmers 
agree that the time to cut clover for the silo is when it is 
in full bloom. 

At this stage, according to Prof. Atwater, it contains 
the following quantities of food materials per acre: 

Green weight 12,650 pounds 

Dry matter 1,410 pounds 

Crude protein 189 pounds 

Crude fiber 390 pounds 

Starch and sugar 682 pounds 

Crude fat 33 pounds 

Ash 107 pounds 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 61 

In siloing clover it is advisable to weight .it as being 
lighter than corn silage it does not pack as well. 

A WORD ABOUT SILOS. 

As we cannot have silage without silos, a word here in 
relation to their construction, cost, etc., will not be 
out of place. 

A silo is an air-tight receptacle in which can be put 
partially green fodder and preserve it in a fit condition for 
feeding to stock. Silos are usually built of wood or stone. 
Men of the largest experience in their construction, claim 
that a wooden silo can be built for one dollar per ton of its 
capacity, and a stone silo for one and a half dollar per ton of 
its capacity. The latter are usually considered cheaper 
because of their greater durability. 

To insure better packing, the silo should be round in 
shape, and not less than twenty-four feet deep, and of a 
diameter that, with the stock fed, from two to three inches 
will be taken off each day. 

. If built of stone they should be cemented on the 
inside, and sheathed on the outside, leaving a four-inch air 
chamber between the sheathing and the wall. That the 
height may be lessened they should be built partially under 
ground wheie the character of the soil will permit of this 
being done. The labor required in filling, and getting the 
silage out will also be greatly lessened, if the silo is 
constructed in the side of a hill or elevation. 

SOILING. 

To know how to keep the largest number of cows on 
the smallest acreage of land is another source of economy 
in dairy farming. If the old system is followed, of pasturing 
in summer, and depending on the farm products for 
winter feeding, the farmer tilling but fifty or sixty acres 
of land can keep but a small dairy herd. This will 
not pay, neither will it be profitable to purchase the feed 



62 Cominon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

to keep a larger number of cows. This difficulty can be 
largely overcome by following a system of farming known 
as "soiling." As it is 'practical results rather than 
theory, the dairyman wants, we give the methods pursued 
by Mr. Crossfield, of Ft. Atkinson, Wisconsin, who has 
been remarkably successful in this way of farming. 

Mr. Crossfield has but fifty-eight acres of tillable land, 
the balance of his farm being boggy marsh and timber land 
affording little or no pasture; yet he keeps at a profit, on this 
little farm, over forty dairy cows and several horses, about 
fifty head of stock in all. We will endeavor to tell you how 
he does it. lyate in the summer he sows several acres of 
rye, and one or two acres of winter wheat. The rye usually 
makes him some fall pasture. In the spring, as soon as the 
land is in fit condition and the rye has sufficient start, the 
cows are turned on and allowed to eat the rye as fast as it 
grows, until time to plow the land for spring crops. A 
small piece of rye, which has not been pastured, is then 
mowed and fed to the cows in the barn. This is followed 
by the winter wheat, which is relished by the stock until it 
is ripe. After the winter wheat, oats are fed, which with 
green clover and millet, carries the stock through until the 
corn is fit to feed. In connection with these green feeds 
corn silage and a grain ration are fed. The ground from 
which the rye is mowed is planted to corn for the 
silo, and the winter wheat ground is sown to millet or hun- 
garian. The rest of the feed for his stock is raised in the 
following proportions: Corn thirty acres; oats thirteen 
acres; clover fifteen acres. 

Twenty acres of the corn is planted thick in drills, 
using about one-half bushel of seed to the acre. This goes 
into the silo. The other ten acres is planted in check rows, 
and allowed to mature, when it is husked. In the winter 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 



63 



the stalks are run through the feed cutter and fed 
to the cows. 

The oats are cut just as the top kernels are turning ripe 
and the straw is yet quite green. They are bound in small 
bundles, and set up, two and two, and capped. When 
thoroughly dry they are stacked, two loads in a 
stack, close to the barn, and drawn in a stack at a 
time, as they are wanted for feed. 

The clover is made into hay, and fed to the cows during 
the winter in connection with other feed. He feeds about 
two pounds of oil meal per day during the winter, but none 
in the summer. Of course bran, corn meal, etc., is also fed. 
By pursuing the methods above given, and planting 
corn on the same land twice in succession, he gets a rotation 
of crops every four years. The manure is drawn onto the 
clover sod during the winter and spring, before it is plowed 
for corn. This system of soiling might not be practical in 
all seasons or in every locality; but it serves to show what 
can . be accomplished by studying conditions, and taking 
advantage of opportunities as they present themselves. 
SUCCULENT FEED. 
Dairymen should not underestimate the value of suc- 
culent feed in a cow's ration. Experience has demonstrated 
that a cow will eat about one-third more of the rich grain 
feed, with plenty of succulence, than she will without it, 
and she will digest and pay for it in an increased production 
of milk. The most liberal feeders of protein foods, also 
feed large quantities of succulent material. Many progres- 
sive dairymen feed as high as forty pounds of corn silage to 
each cow every morning, to which is added during the;^day 
from sixteen to eighteen pounds of concentrated feed. The 
cow that can take a large portion of concentrated food and 
assimilate it, is generally the largest milk and butter 
producer. 



64 Conimon-Seyise Ideas for Dairymen. 

"One hundred American Dairy Rations," arranged by 
Prof. Woll of the Wisconsin Experiment Station.is a compi- 
lation of one hundred rations actually fed, by one hundred 
successful dairymen throughout the country. Over sixty of 
these dairymen feed silage A significant fact connected 
with this is, that every one of these sixty or more farmers 
are making, on an average, over three hundred pounds of 
butter per 3'ear from each cow in their herds. It goes with- 
out saj-ing that the highest production of milk and butter 
can only be obtained when the cows receive a highly nitro- 
genous ration, one containing a large quantity of digestible 
protein. This is necessary for the rapid building up of the 
cells of the milk glands, the raw material of the milk; the 
more liberal supply of protein, therefore, up to the limit of 
the capacity of the glands of each cow, the greater the flow 
of milk. Any system of feeding, therefore, that tends to 
stimulate the cow's appetite until she will readily consume 
the requisite quantity of these foods to accomplish this 
result, is beneficial. Experience has demonstrated that the 
liberal feeding of succulent foods has this effect . 

WATER FOR DAIRY STOCK. 

When we consider the fact that only about fourteen per 
cent of milk is solids, the remaining eighty-six per cent 
being water, we will realize the importance of providing 
dairy cows with pure water to drink. Impure water not 
only affects the quality of milk and its products, but it 
imperils the health of the animal. The evil results arising 
from the use of impure water by man is fully realized; and 
millions of dollars are spent each year, in this country, in 
order that this menace to life and health may be removed. 
No intelligent reason exists for believing the physiological 
effects of impure water different on man than on the lower 
orders of animal creation. A herd of dairy cows that is 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 65 

compelled to get its drink supply, during the hot summer 
months, from stagnant pools and quagmires, cannot be as 
healthy, other conditions being the same, as the animals 
that are provided with pure water. The deleterious effect 
on the quality of milk, produced by impure water, while no 
more important than its efftct on health, is the more readily 
observed. It is safe to say that no product manufactured 
from milk is exempt from the injurious consequences 
resulting from the use of impure drinking ^^ate^. It is 
then, of the greatest importance to the dairy farmer, that 
his cows should have only pure water to drink. If stagnant 
pools exist in his pasture, they should be drained if possible, 
if not, they should be surrounded by a fence, so the cows 
cannot reach them. Cows not only need pure water to 
drink, but they should have free access to it. They will 
drink often during the day where the opportunity is afforded 
them. The importance of pure water as a factor in milk 
production, does not receive due consideration from a large 
number of farmers. They seem to think if the food supply 
is all right, the rest does not matter. This is a great and 
expensive mistake; as much of the advantage gained by 
right feeding, may be neutralized by giving cows impure 
water to drink. 

WARM THE WATER. 

In the winter season care should be taken that the 
water is not too cold. If drawn from the well immediately 
before the cows are allowed to drink, the temperature may 
not be too low. But, if allowed to stand any length of time 
in the winter atmosphere, the chill should be taken off 
before the cows are permitted to drink it. The temperature 
should not be below fifty-eight or sixty degrees. 

MISCElyl^ANEOUS. 

Potatoes may be fed to dairy cows with beneficial results, 



66 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

if not fed in too large quantities. Wlien fed, they should be 
washed and cut up, but not cooVed. It is not considered 
practical, by our best dairymen, to cook any kind of feed for 
dairy stock. 

ROOTS. 

It is not believed the feeding of roots in large quantities 
to dairy cows, is economically desirable in most cases. 
Many of our best educators, however, advise their grov^ing 
by the farmer who has no silage, and has not sufficient 
stock to pay to build a silo. 

FEEDING DRY COWS. 

It is considered practical economy to feed cows liberally, 
even when dry. If in good flesh, but not too fat at the time 
of coming in, they possess a reserved force which will be 
applied to an increased production of milk. 

CARE OF DAIRY STOCK. 

Proper care must go hand in hand with wise selection 
and judicious feeding, if the best results obtainable are 
realized in dairy farmine. A little neglect in this direction 
will neutralize many of the benefits arising from good 
breeding and feeding. The true dairy cow usually possesses 
a highly nervous temperament that rebels against hari-h 
treatment. In view of this fact, it is ill-advised economy 
for the dairyman to share with the the farm dog the duty 
of caring for her; for if he does, she will in all probability 
even up with him, by giving an ever-diminishing quantity 
of milk. Cowboy tactics are not calculated to bring out the 
best functions of a dairy cow, and they should never be 
practiced. 

The writer has seen carloads of so-calkd dairy cows 
brought into the town where he resides, which, as soon as 
the car was placed on the siding, were kicked and hustled to 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 67 

the ground. Then, with yells that would excite the envy 
of an Indian; whip-snappings and profanity, the frightened 
animals were driven at high speed to the yards, where the}' 
were auctioned off to the farmers, as choice dairy stock. 
Often the same tactics were repeated in driving them out to 
the farms of the dairymen who purchased them, where amid 
unfamiliar surroundings, they were expected to prove 
themselves good dairy cows. Is it any wonder these farmers 
fail to realize their expectations? Cows treated in this 
manner are sure to be destroyed for dairy purposes, however 
high bred they may be, or however numerous may be their 
natural qualities. Gentle treatment is about as important 
as good feeding, and must be the practice of dairymen if 
they would succeed. 

SHELTER. 

Dairy cows, to do well, must be kept comfortable. 
Winter dairying will not pay if the cows are housed in cold 
and ill ventilated stables. The mercury in the cow barn 
should never reach the freezing point; it should never drop 
below forty -five or fifty degrees. A cow cannot long main- 
tain the vital force necessary for profitable dairy work, if 
exposed to the rigors of a winter climate. Economy in 
feeding, if nothing else, would dictate that she be kept warm. 

Strip the jacket from the locomotive and send it out in a 
zero temperature, and it will be found to require a large 
increase in coal consumption to keep up a full head of 
steam. So it is with the cow. The same elements that are 
used up in maintaining heat in her body are necessary to the 
production of milk. If kept in a cold stable, she will apply 
the carbonaceous feed given her, to the generation of bodily 
heat, and will take a like amount out of the butter fat. A 
practical dairyman says that, though his cow barn is com- 
fortably warm, he has in very severe weather thrown a 



68 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

blanket over his cows, and by so doing, increased the yield 
of butter fat from nine to fourteen ounces per cow per week. 

Another dairyman tells of a cow in his herd that was 
testing from five to five and a half per cent right along. By 
some means she was left out of the barn one night, when 
the weather was quite cold, and the next day her milk tested 
only two per cent and fell off considerably in quantity. 
When returned to her comfortable quarters in the barn, she 
gradually regained her normal condition. Comfort, then, 
is imperative, if we would have cows do their best work. 

It is claimed by some dairymen that they cannot 
maintain so high a temperature in their barns, without 
applying artificial heat, which would be both inconvenient 
and expensive. Of course, the temperature would depend 
very much upon the construction of the barn, its location, 
etc. ; but if the dairyman will arrange to have his barn well 
filled with hay, straw or other fodder, during the inclement 
months, it is doubtful if he will need any artificial heat to 
render his stock comfortable. In this case, the barn will 
keep the cows warm and the cows will keep the barn warm. 

The question of comfort, however, does not all hinge 
on the single element of heat; there are other features of 
much importance that require consideration. The old- 
fashioned custom of fastening cows in stanchions is now 
considered both cruel and unprofitable. The cows should 
be so tied as to give them sufiicient latitude to turn their 
heads, and to allow them to reach any part of their bodies. 
The platform upon which they stand should be made wider 
at one end of the stable than at the other, so as to insure 
plenty of room for animals of different sizes. They should 
be supplied with plenty of bedding; straw if you have it, 
if not, any refuse fodder material will do, providing it is 
clean and dry. 

The cows, as well as the stable, should be kept clean; 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 69 

not only as a source of health and comfort to the animals, 
but as a precaution against impregnating the milk with foul 
odors and unfavorable germs. Special care should be taken 
to keep the mangers clean to prevent the accumulation of 
distasteful and health-destroying ferments. This matter 
should be given special attention, as it is very important. 
It has been demonstrated beyond dispute that the quality of 
milk a cow gives is affected by the air she breathes; there- 
fore, if you would have pure milk, as well as healthy 
animals keep the mangers clean. The writer knows of an 
instance in Kane county, Illinois, where fifty out of a herd 
of ninety-five cows were lost during the winter of 1897, from 
causes directly attributable, according to the best veterinary 
talent, to the accumulation of unwholesome and disease - 
breeding germs in the mangers. If it can be done, it is a 
good plan to have a separate box for each cow, so arranged 
that it can be removed and thoroughly cleaned with scalding 
water as occasion demands. 

VENTILATION. 
Another important contributor to the comfort, health- 
fulness and productive resources of the dairy cow, is proper 
ventilation. There are many systems of ventilation in use, 
some of which are good, while others are worse than useless. 
Of course the location of ventilating shafts depends very 
much upon the construction of the barn and the arrange- 
ments of the cow stables. If the platforms are on each side 
of the feeding hall, so that the cows face toward the center 
of the barn, the ventilating shafts maybe constructed behind 
the cows, as follows: Beginning about six inches from the 
floor, extend the shafts opposite each other, up the sides of 
the barn between the studding to the roof; then along the 
rafters to the ridge of the roof, where they intersect and 
are carried up through the roof about three feet above the 
ridge; spike two by four joist about two feet long in each 



70 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

corner of the shaft extending about six inches above the top. 
Plate with the same material and roof over. This will leave 
a six inch opening between the sides and the roof of the 
shaft. Allow the roof to extend well over the sides of the 
shaft to keep out snow and rain. If there is a cupola on 
the barn, the shafts may connect with it, but must not be 
carried up into it, as to do so will destroy the circulation of 
air. The ventilating shaft should end just below the cupola. 
Many ventilating shafts are constructed with a single 
flue, and are generally very unsatisfactory if not entirely 
useless. They let in so much cold air that they have to be 
entirely closed during severe winter weather, the very time 
they are most needed. This condition can be overcome by 
constructing two flues in each shaft, thus insuring perfect 
circulation. Make the shaft eighteen by thirty-six inches 
in size with a partition through the center. This 
will afford two flues eighteen inches square in each shaft. 
Near the bottom of each flue place a slide or damper by the 
adjustment of which the circulation of air can be regulated. 
The shafts can be best made of matched flooring running 
lengthwise of the shaft. The number of shafts 
required will depend on the size of the barn and the number 
of cows kept in it. If the construction of the bain will not 
admit of the shaft's being built up the sides and along the 
roof, they may be brought down on each side of the 
driveway, out of the way of the hay-fork, and may terminate 
just below the ceiling of the cow-barn. Here the slides or 
dampers should be placed in easy reach. The most perfect 
ventilation, however, is secured by extending the shafts 
down nearly to the floor. 

care; at CAI.VING. 

H. C. Taylor, of Orfordville, Wisconsin, the well 
known breeder of full-blood Jersey stock, and the original 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 71 

owner of the world-famed " Brown Bessie," has the follow- 
ing to say on this subject: 

"After having used all possible care in selecting a cow, 
and after you have religiously resolved to treat her with 
kindness and consideration, your profit for the year will 
depend on the treatment you give her for thirty days after 
freshening. Give special attention to her general condition 
and health prior to this time — a prosperous, thriving, up- 
grade condition preferred. It is after freshening that all the 
judgment and skill of the dairyman is called for. She should 
have a boxed stall, and, in winter weather, should be kept 
blanketed and absolutely free from draughts of cold air. 
All water given her should have the chill taken off and she 
should receive small quantities frequently, especially for a 
a few days after freshening. Remember, the cow has more 
or less fever at this time; her temperature ranging from 103 
to 104 degrees, is often reached without any apparent 
disturbance. For this reason, coupled with the fact that 
she is a mother, performing the functions of maternity, she 
is a sick cow, and in all cases should be treated as such. 
Twenty-four hours previous to calving administer one-half 
ounce of nitrate of potash in one pound of salts. After 
freshening she should receive ten drops of aconite, twice a 
day, to counteract the fever. If she is a heavy milker give 
no slop food for a week, or until the danger period has 
passed. Do not expect an increased flow of milk until the 
fever subsides and she resumes a normal condition. Then 
give increased rations three times a day, gradually bringing 
her up to her full capacity, which should not be reached 
under two months. Remember that the more a cow produces 
the more she is able to produce, and that a cow well win- 
tered is half summered. If you have made a wise selection 
in this cow, and do your duty to her as your interests 
demand, you will soon become an enthusiastic dairyman." 



72 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

It is not usual to give salts before calving if there is no 
tendency to constipation. If silage is fed, or carrots, it 
will perhaps not be necessary. The cow should not be 
milked before calving, neither is it deemed advisable to draw 
all the milk from the udder for several days after. Men 
who have made this a study advise not to do it; as it is apt 
to collapse the udder to such an extent as to invite inflam- 
mation, which might run into milk fever. 

While no heavy feed, such as corn meal, should be 
given a cow after calving until the fever has subsided, 
carrots or potatoes, with a little oil meal, is considered 
an excellent ration for her. 

CARE OF THE CAEF. 

If the calf is a female and you wish to raise it for a 
dairy cow, its development to this end should begin with 
the first day of its life. It should receive a care calculated 
to insure a strong vitality, be liberally but not over fed, and 
if it comes in the winter, kept constantly in the barn until 
the opening of mild weather in the spring. Its development 
should never be retarded by any cause that intelligent care 
and handling can avoid. Milk is its natural nourishment, 
and for some time should be its principal food. It should 
be early taught to drink and gradually brought to a skim 
milk ration, supplemented by clover hay or hay and silage, 
oatmeal and other feeds rich in protein elements. The old 
adage, "As the twig is bent the tree is inclined," is very 
applicable in this connection; for it must be remembered, the 
true dairy cow has been trained for generations with the 
distinctive purpose of converting farm products into milk, 
and a perpetuation of these qualities should be the end 
attained in rearing the calf. 

EXERCISE. 

The question of exercise for dairy cows has received 
considerable attention from advanced dairymen. Can cows 



Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock. 73 

be kept in the barn throughout the long winter months and 
fed on rich feeds up to the limit of their digestive capacity 
and still retain their vital force or energy ? Or, if no imme- 
diate effects are noticable in the cows themselves, will it not 
result in the production of less vigorous animals in the 
future? Dairymen of the widest experience claim that cows 
can be thus housed without zny deleterious effects resulting 
to themselves or their posterity. The correctness of this 
view is pretty well established by the cows themselves when 
left to their own volition. The dairy cow is never in a 
hurry; all her movements are slow and deliberate. If left 
to herself, she will make the journey out to the pasture lot 
in short, infrequent stages, and after arriving there, will 
proceed to fill herself up on the smallest area possible. 
When this is accomplished she will seek the shade of the 
nearest tree where she will lie hours and chew her cud. We 
are told that the Jersey cow, Oslip Lennox, when making 
her famous year's record of 712.5 pounds of butter, was 
never out of the stable from the middle of October to the 
first of the following May. In the Minnesota herd, where 
she was then owned, all cattle were handled in the same 
waj' without any deleterious results. An intelligent dairy- 
man says on this subject: "Domestic animals need to be 
trained and handled with an eye single to the service we 
require of them. We give our horses exercise and plenty 
of it. Their usefulness depends on their ability to go along; 
whereas the usefulness of the cow largely depends on her 
ability to stand still. The dairy cows from the channel 
islands have been trained in this direction for generations. 
They seek their food at home within short distances, and 
that under the immediate guidance of the country maid and 
the tether." 

When a cow lies down and chews her cud she is working. 
That is the specific work for which she is fitted. She will 



74 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

stand still all winter, and do exactly that work on the pasture 
the next summer. This seems to be the concensus of 
opinion among experienced dairymen everywhere. They 
may turn their cows into the yard a short time in the middle 
of the da.y, while the stables are being cleaned, but they are 
not permitted to remain out long at a time, and not at all 
if the weather is stormy or unusually severe. When cows 
are stabled in this way, the barn should be provided with a 
system of ventilation that will insure them pure air to- 
breathe. This is imperative and should never be neglected. 
Care must be taken, however, that the cows are not exposed 
to a draught. 

Under the old system of dairying little was expected 
from the cows during the winter months. It is different 
now. With many dairymen the best results are obtained 
during this season of the year. To do this it is necessary to- 
conform as nearly as possible to summer conditions. Silage 
has proven a good substitute for green pasture, and 
the warm, well ventilated stable, takes the place of 
summer weather; thus .enabling the thrifty dairyman to 
pursue his vocation with profit at all seasons and under all 
climatic conditions. 



CHapter III. 

G)fn and Clover Culture* 

Dairying in the central west is so dependent on the 
corn and clover crops for its success, that a discussion of the 
subject which omitted a consideration of these important 
factors would necessarily be incomplete. Corn is the chief 
food product of the western dairyman, and clover is the best 
•coarse food with which to make a balanced ration where corn 
is fed. The latter crop is not only important as a food 
product, but the fertility it brings to the over-taxed soil 
renders its culture an indispensable factor in successful 
farming. In view of these facts, a brief review of the moie 
successful methods employed in corn and clover production, 
will not be considered out of place in a book treating of the 
dairy industry. 

CORN RAISING. 

No food product raised from the soil is so important to 
the dairy farmer as the com crop; and, while the numerous 
factors entering into its production have been widely dis- 
cussed for many years, there yet remains much to be learned 
by the average farmer, before it can be said of him, he has 
mastered the subject of com cultivation. The following 
pages are largely made up of extracts from the writings of 
men having wide experience and great success in corn 
growing. It is therefore beheved a knowledge of their 
methods will prove of much value to the average farmer, if 
he will apply them in the prosecution of his own efforts in 

-this direction. 

SELECTING SEED CORN. 

Prof. Henry. — I saw seed corn that had grown for fifty 

[75] 



76 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

years not only on one farm, but almost on one spot. If there 
is any plant that can be grown over and over on the same 
soil as long as there is fertility, it is the corn plant. It is 
particularly a home-loving plant, and like the Indian, it pines 
away and never does so well when removed from its native 
spot. If you have a good kind of corn, stick to it, If 
your neighbor right by you, on the same kind of soil practi- 
cally, 'has a better variety, then I would take his; but I 
would not go more than a few miles from home for my seed 
corn, if I could possibly avoid it. As for silage corn it does, 
not matter so much. You want a large variety, that does, 
not always mature. 

The attention of farmers living in the colder latitudes 
of the corn belt is called to the following suggestions offered 
by Prof. Henry as to the importance of making a thorough 
test of the flint varieties of corn. He says: " We get our 
corn in this section largely from points to the south of us. 
where dent corn mostly prevails. Farther north, flint corn 
only should be grown. This year, at the Experiment 
Station, we grew from seventy-three to seventy-eight bushels- 
of shelled flint corn per acre. Many have an idea that the 
flint corn does not yield as much as the dent. This is- 
incorrect for this section (central Wisconsin), and I urge 
the farmers, especially those having a somewhat cold soil,, 
to try flint corn." 

Farmers following the above suggestions should be 
careful to give the crop a more shallow cultivation, than is 
the case where dent corn is planted. The flint varieties do 
not grow deeply, consequently a shallow culture of from 
one inch to an inch and a half is sufiicient. 

George Howard. — The first thing required for a good 
corn crop is good, well-bred seed. The difference between 
the seed that will throw out strong, healthy sprouts, and 
that which has merely life enough to grow, will make a far 



Corn and Clover Culture. 77 

greater difference in the yield than is realized by most 
farmers. Choose the type of corn that you think will do 
the best on your farm, and then select the ears that come as 
near your ideal of perfection as possible; always avoiding 
ears containing smutty kernels. To insure good seed, pick 
it either before or at the time the com is cut, and place it 
where it will beeome thoroughly dried as soon as possible. 
Fire-dried corn usually gives the most satisfactory results. 

W. C. Bradley. — Seed corn should be selected from 
standing com, hung up to dry in a room where there is a 
fire, and then it should be tested before planting. Corn 
taken from a crib at planting time may grow, but poor seed 
has caused more loss in the crop than any other thing I 
know of. 

Mr. Todd. — We made a test of seed cured in different 
ways, and we found that we got ten bushels more to the acre 
in the same field, planted the same day and cultivated the 
same, from fire-dried seed. It seems a pretty small thing to 
talk about, but when we look at the corn crop in the United 
States, we must remember that the loss of ten per cent in the 
crop means about one hundred and seventy-five millions 
bushels, and about half that many dollars. 

Mr. Brown. — For thirty-five years we have grown corn 
upon oiu" farm, and we find that the fire-dried corn is the 
best every time. We fire-dry about one hundred bushels 
every year, and in every case it has paid. There is only 
about one year in a half dozen that you can take corn out of 
the crib and be sure that it will germinate. 

Mr. McKerrow. — Some ten years ago a neighbor of 
mine said to me: "I am going to show you something 
about corn." Outside, growing under natuial conditions 
quite early in the spring, he had four lots of corn in four 
boxes, where he had tested his seed corn. One of these 
samples was three inches above the soil, the next box about 



78 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

an inch and a half to two inches, the next about an inch 
high, and in the last about an inch high also, but finer in 
stem. These different samples were all planted on the same 
day, in the same kind of soil, at the same depth, and had 
been attended to in the same way, and were all the same 
kind of corn. The first lot that was growing so rank and 
strong was fire-dried, the second lot was sun-dried on the 
outside of the building, and taken in whenever it rained, 
third lot was put up in racks and allowed to dry out in the 
workshop, and the last was taken out of the corn crib, 

PROPER SOIL FOR CORN. 

George L. Howard. — By a soil adapted to the crop is 
meant, not only a fertile soil, but one that is well drained 
yet sufficiently moist, and lying in a position to be well 
warmed by the sun's rays, for corn is a crop that requires a 
large amount of heat. There is nothing better for corn than 
a clover sod that has not been down over two years, with a 
top dressing of manure. 

W. C. Bradley. — We like a clover or timothy sod for 
corn, because this is the best place to put the manure during 
the winter and spring. We believe there is no time when 
the manure is of more value than when first made, and 
there will be less waste when applied on sod, as the fine, 
short grass and stubble, and abundance of roots in the 
earth, will take up and hold more of the manure than if put 
on the bare ground; and we believe in putting the manure 
on thinner than is often done, that the first crop may take 
most of the value, for when ground is manured very heavily 
there is a loss by leaching downward that cannot be 
returned. 

PLOWING FOR CORN. 

Plow your corn ground in the spring after the grass is 
started, and drag each way thoroughly each evening while 



Corn and Clover Culture. 79 

the plowing is being done; as this will keep the ground from 
drying out, and the surface from becoming hard and lumpy. 
If, however, the weather is moist, let it be until the sun 
begins to dry it up, and cracks begin to form in the soil, 
when it should be dragged at once. When through plowing, 
cultivate thoroughly with the disc and drag, finishing with 
a plank, so as to have a smooth surface to plant on. 

George ly. Howard. — I prefer to plow for corn in the 
spring for two reasons: One is that it enables us to manure 
the ground with manure direct from the stables during the 
winter and early spring, thus avoiding the losses that 
would occur by its being left around the bam; and another 
reason is that, if the land is sandy, its fertility is easily lost 
by percolation, and it is preferable to have a growing crop 
upon it as many days of the year as possible. We plow 
about four inches deep. The plowing should be well 
done, using a jointer to turn under all the grass and weeds 
at the edge of the furrow. The preparation of the soil 
before planting should be thorough, as a good seed-bed will 
give the corn a start in the spring that it will maintain 
throughout the season. Timothy or blue-grass sod especially 
should be well pulverized to a depth of at least three inches. 

It is claimed by some that fall plowing for corn is 
preferable, especially in clay soil, as it is easier to work into 
a perfect seed-bed. Men of the largest experience and 
success as corn producers, however, prefer spring plowing; 
claiming that it gives more satisfactory results in clay, as 
well as in other kinds of soil. 

PLANTING CORN. 

In planting corn, especially with hand planters on sandy 
soil, care must be taken not to get the seed in too deep. 

Mr. McKerrow. — We plant with a two-horse planter, in 
rows three feet eight inches apart, and one to two kernels in 
a place, every eight or ten inches in the row. We do not 



80 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

believe in husking much corn, and by planting in drills we 
get more pounds of feed than if planted in checks. We 
have also found it just as easy to keep clean. We run the 
planter just as shallow as we can and cover the seed. 

It is held by some farmers that you can get larger ears 
and a better yield from a given area of land, if the corn is 
planted in hills instead of in drills. Experience has fully 
demonstrated, however, that where dairy cattle are fed the 
drill corn is preferable; as it produces much more fodder 
than is the case when planted in hills. It has been further 
shown that, where the corn is properly cared for, neither the 
qualit}' nor the yield is impaired by drilling. The Michigan 
Experiment Station experimented along this line with the 
following results: A given piece of land was planted in 
hills three feet ten inches apart each way, and a similar plat 
was drilled three feet ten inches between the drills. The 
results both as to quality of grain and yield was nearly 
twenty per cent in favor of the drill corn. Similar results 
have been obtained by nearly all the extensive corn growers 
of the west. 

Mr. Todd. — We made three experiments with drilled 
and hilled corn, and the result was that the drilled corn was 
about ten per cent better than the hilled corn, right side by 
side in the same field. Consequently we put corn in with 
the drill every time. 

Prof. Henry. — As far as my observation goes, the 
question of hills and drills depends upon the man. Our 
most advanced, successful farmers will put a field in the 
condition that it should be, and fertilize it as it should be, 
and put it all into drills and get the largest crop of corn, 
while a less aggressive farmer who does not have his land in 
as good condition, will plant his corn in hills because with 
less care he gets a partial crop. 



Corn and Clover Cull lire. 81 

CULTIVATION OF THE CROP. 

George L. Howard. — The objects of cultivation are the 
destruction of weeds, the preservation of soil moisture, 
improving the texture and friability of the soil, and aeration 
of the soil. The question of soil moisture is coming to be 
recognized as one of the most important factors in growing 
a good crop. 

Prof. King, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, has 
found by a series of experiments that it requires something 
over three hundred pounds of water to produce one pound 
of dry matter in corn. In his field experiments this 
amounted to a rain fall of from twelve to fourteen inches. 
But in growing the corn in galvanized iron cylinders, and 
supplying water enough to amount to twenty-five inches 
of rainfall, he more than doubled the computed yield per 
acre on the same kind of soil, and under as nearly the same 
conditions as possible. This would lead us to believe that 
we naturally have too little water in our soils to produce 
the largest crop. As the normal rainfall for this section of 
country, during the growing season is only about twenty- 
five inches, it is plain that we must carefully preserve what 
water we do get if we would obtain the best results. This 
can best be done by keeping the surface soil in a fine pulver- 
ized condition, thereby making a dry mulch which effectually 
prevents the evaporation of the water that is being brought 
up from below by capillary attraction. 

HARROWING CORN. 

Before the corn comes up, and before it has attained a 
height of six inches, the quickest and most economical 
form of cultivator to use is a hght, straight-toothed harrow. 
Harrow as the weeds begin to start or the surface soil 
becomes compact by rains. Harrow only on warm, sunshiny 
days, never when the corn is wet either with dew or rain, as 
it is then much more brittle and easily injured. 



82 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairy^neu. 

Mr. Heath. — The secret of success in harrowing corn 
depends upon getting the surface of the ground smooth 
before you harrow. I think it is quite detrimental to try to 
harrow corn where the seed-bed has not been properly pre- 
pared. Some farmers complain that they lose a great deal 
of corn by harrowing, and that is where the trouble is. 

Mr. Goodrich. — In my experience I find there is no 
time to wait in harrowing corn. You must commence before 
it is up and harrow very often, especially if the ground is 
very dry. I desire to keep the harrow going to prevent the 
weeds from starting, for when they once come up, you cannot 
kill them with the harrow. I consider the afternoon 
is the preferable time to harrow; as the com is 
then more limp, and less liable to break by the harrow 
passing over it. Corn can be harrowed in this way until it 
is six and even eight inches high without injuring the crop. 
HOW TO USE THE CULTIVATOR. 

After the corn has attained a growth of from six to 
eight inches, the harrow must be put aside and the cultivator 
substituted. The question then to determine is, which is 
productive of the most satisfactory results, shallow or deep 
cultivation. Among farmers of experience the concensus 
of opinion is favorable to shallow cultivation; as the follow- 
ing extracts go to show: 

George L. Howard. — While it is true that a dry mulch 
of earth four inches deep will preserve more moisture than a 
mulch one inch deep, another factor comes in here, the corn 
plant throws out, even in the early stages of its growth, a 
large number of feeders near the surface of the soil. It 
was found by examining corn twenty-seven days after 
planting, that the roots extended laterally to a distance of 
twenty-four inches; and their tips were only four inches 
below the su' face, sloping gradually upward toward the hill 
where they were only two inches below the surface. In 



Corn and Clover Culture. 83 

cultivating with the old-fashioned four or six shovel plow, 
four or five inches deep, close to the hill, so many of these 
feeding roots are cut off as to injure the crop. Many of the 
best farmers testify that, by changing to shallow cultivation 
they have materially increased the yield. I would recom- 
mend cultivating about three or four inches deep in the 
center of the row, and two inches deep near the hill, in the 
fore part of the season, lessening the depth to two inches 
in the center, and one inch and a half near the hill at the 
close of the cultivating season. Use a cultivator that will 
leave the ground as near level as possible, as the throwing 
up of ridges increases the surface exposed and likewise the 
amount of evaporation . 

W. C. Bradley. — It is important to cultivate as soon 
after a rain as possible, so as to cut off the capillary tubes 
that have been formed by the ground being wet and becom- 
ing packed. Cultivate now, making a dust blanket on the 
surface that will prevent evaporation. It has been 
thoroughly proven by weighing a cubic foot of earth from a 
com field, a part of which had been cultivated after a heavy 
rain and a part left uncultivated for several days, that the 
soil from the cultivated part contained much more moisture 
than did that from the other part that was not cultivated. 
We use the weeder until the corn is about two feet high, then 
a small tooth cultivator run as shallow as we can, stirring 
the ground not over two inches deep so as not to cut off the 
com roots that are near the surface. We keep up the 
cultivating until the grain harvest claims our attention. 

Mr. Todd. — Many of the feeding roots of corn are 
within three inches of the top of the ground; and there 
would be danger of too much pruning if cultivated deeper 
than two inches. In soil that is very fertile in producing 
com, over half the roots that feed the corn are within three 
inches of the top of the ground. We have experiments, I 



84 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

think, from five different experiment stations showing this 
to be the fact. There are very few roots above two inches 
from the surface. 

HARVESTING THE CORN. 

Corn should be put up in large shocks and tied near the 
top. If tied lower down the band becomes loose as the shock 
shrinks, the top spreads apart, twists out of shape and will 
be damaged by rain. A great deal of corn fodder is dam- 
aged by being put into shocks that are too small. In stacking 
it is advisable to wait until the corn stalks are thoroughly 
dry, then stack in narrow ricks or small round stacks, 
keeping the center full as in a grain stack; as heavy rains 
often occur in the winter. The best way to feed it is to cut 
it up, corn and stalks together, and feed in the manger in 
the cow barn; as a great deal of good fodder is wasted by 
feeding in the yard. 

IMPORTANT FACTS. 

Where you have a corn crop, the growing season extends 
throughout the larger portion of the season of rain-fall, and 
the season of high temperature, when the plant food is more 
largely developed. It takes up the fertility and stores it in 
the crop, instead of allowing it to percolate through the soil 
and be lost. Therefore, corn production improves the 
mechanical condition of the soil, when well cultivated, 
destroys weeds and allows no fertility to go to waste. 

RECAPITULATION . 

The following are a few of the more salient points 
brought out in the foregoing pages of this chapter. 

SEED. 
( I ) Select your seed from corn raised on your own 
farm or in the immediate vicinity, where the soil and 
climatic conditions are the same; as experience has proven 



Corn and Clover Culture. 85 

corn to be a home-loving plant that does not thrive if far 
removed from its native soil. 

(2) Gather the seed ears just before or at the time of 
cutting, when the corn is thoroughly dented and matured. 

(3) Select only perfectly developed ears, being careful 
that they contain no smutty kernels. 

(4) Dry the seed corn in a room where there is a fire; 

as it has been demonstrated that fire-dried seed invariably 

insures the quickest, most vigorous growth and largest 

yield. 

VARIETIES TO SELECT. 

( I ) Dent corn is the variety usually planted through- 
out the middle west, where grain production is an important 
object. 

{2) It is sometimes claimed that white dent is more 
productive than yellow dent, but as far as chemical analysis 
has shown there is no practical difference. Of course, the 
deeper the root of the corn the better it will withstand drouth, 
and there are, no doubt, some varieties of dent corn that 
root deeper than others. 

(3) Flint varieties are recommended as the most 
satisfactory in the north, where the soil is likely to be cold; 
WHERE TO PLANT. 

( 1 ) Clover sod that has received a thin top dressing of 
manure during the preceding winter, is considered the best 
land for corn. 

(2) Plow in the spring and cultivate into a well pul- 
verized and level seed bed before planting. 

HOW TO PLANT. 

(i) A majority of the most experienced corn growers 
favor drilling in preference to planting in hills. This method 
produces more fodder, which is an important item where 
dairying is extensively followed. 

(2) Corn should be planted shallow; at most, not over 



86 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

an inch and a half deep. Plant when the soil is neither too 
wet nor too dry, but is in the most suitable condition to work 
nicely. Never, because you may be a little behind with 
your work, plant corn in wet soil. 

HARROWING. 

(1) The object in harrowing corn is two fold: first to 
keep down the weeds, and second to preserve the moisture 
in the soil. 

(2) Harrowing should begin soon after the com is 
planted, before it is up, and should be continued until it is 
four to six inches high. 

(3) Never harrow corn when the surface of the soil is 
wet, nor in the morning, or forenoon, after the com has 
attained a growth of one or two inches; do the harrowing 
in the afternoon , when the corn is partially wilted and is less 
liable to break. 

CULTIVATING. 

(1) Shallow cultivation is recommended. By this is 
meant a cultivation of about two and a half inches deep. 

(2) The reason for cultivating no deeper, is to avoid 
pruning the roots of the growing corn. Many of these roots 
are within three inches of the surface, and the only way to 
avoid cutting them off, thereby injuring the growth of the 
corn, is by shallow cultivation. 

CLOVER CULTURE. 
Clover is the best crop with which to make a balanced 
ration where corn is largely fed. Its value in a rotation of 
crops is also an additional reason for its increased production. 

CLOVER AS A FERTILIZER. 

The ability of the different varieties of clover to restore 
fertility to impoverished soils is universally recognized by 
progressive farmers. It is known these fertilizing properties 
are due to the minute bacteria that are enclosed in the tiny 



Corn and Clover Culture. 87 

swellings on the clover roots. Recognition of this fact, and 
the study of these organisms, and the conditions under 
which they grow and multiply, has enabled scientists ta 
intelligently instruct the farmer as to the best method to- 
pursue, that he may secure the largest benefits from these 
fertilizing properties. We therefore give, in the following 
pages, a brief outline of the methods employed and their 
attending results, by men of wide experience and informa- 
tion along the line of clover production, 

*Henry Wallace. — If the ancients had known what \ire 
know about clover, of its power of obtaining its supply of 
the costliest elements in stock food, and food for the human 
family from the free winds of heaven, it would have been 
regarded, hke the lotus of Egypt, a sacred plant. Had it 
not been for the fact that, so far back as we have any 
knowledge of agriculture, clover has been regarded as a 
great soil renovator, the discoveries of later years, with 
reference to the sources from which the plant obtains its 
fertilit3'-, and the particular kind of fertihty it supplies, 
would have been received with utter incredulity, not only 
by the farmers, but by scientists. We believe, however, 
that no agricultural discovery that has been made during 
the last hundred j^ears has been so important and valuable 
to the tillers of the soil. By the use of clover we draw 
upon the atmosphere for fertility in the form of nitrogen, 
which enters into all the flesh-making compounds. The 
draft will not be honored, however, unless countersigned by 
a legume. If we draw off and sell the product in the shape 
of hay, then plow under the roots, grow grain, sell it oJBT 
the farm and repeat the process, it is only a question of 
time when we will have land so poor that only commercial 

*Henry Wallace, of DesMoines, Iowa, is the author of a book on 
clover culture that is considered one of the best authorities on this subject. The 
extracts herein given are from a paper read by him before a Farmers' Institute- 
meeting' held at Menominee, Wisconsin. 



88 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

fertilizers, costing in a very few years more than the land is 
worth, will restore it. The land may perhaps be saved but 
the owner will be bankrupt. On the other hand, if the 
clover growth is rightly applied we need never complain of 
a barren soil, or of abandoned farms. 

C. E. Chapman. — I do not advocate the expenditure of 
money in buying expensive fertilizers. It is not necessary 
to use anything but what can be produced on the farm. To 
get the largest benefits from clover as a fertilizer, I recom- 
mend plowing it under in the fall, especially on sandy soil; 
for the reason that the clover turns into decayed vegetable 
matter or humus. The difference between a sandy and a 
fertile field is the amount of humus in it; the office of humus 
in the soil is to draw in and hold potash and nitrogen until 
the plants can use them. The clover, when plowed under, 
is decaying and giving off nitrogen in a form that can be 
used by the growing crops. You have to set your fertility 
traps in the field, and humus is the best kind. Nitrogen is 
the most expensive fertilizer if you have to buy it. It will 
cost if purchased, about seventeen cents a pound; whereas, 
if the farmer raises a good clover crop, he will not only save 
this expense, but he will also obtain the benefit of the 
mechanical effects of clover upon the soil, in raising it up, 
loosening it, etc. 

Mr. Chapman is a New York State farmer, where the 
need of fertility in the soil is more extensively felt than it 
has yet been in the west; but much of the land in the west 
is out of condition for want of a special kind of organic 
matter in the soil. The clover crop very largely supplies 
this deficiency. It facilitates the absorption of moisture, 
because it takes up the rainfall when it comes, much more 
readily than a more compact soil will do. It affords a 
warmer soil for the corn crop, because a soil containing a 
large amount of organic matter is always darker colored, 



Corn and Clover Culture. 89 

and a dark colored soil has a greater power of absorption 
of heat. 

VARIETIES OF CLOVER TO RAISE. 
Henry Wallace. — To the farmer who has adopted a 
rotation of crops, and who is engaged in stock-growing or 
dairying, and who wishes to raise clover for fertility, for 
hay and for pasture, with a seed-crop in favorable seasons, 
the common red variety is recommended. If the rotation is 
a short one, for example; clover, corn, oats, and then back 
to clover, it is usually preferable to sow the clover alone. If, 
however, it is intended to mow two years, or to mow one, 
then pasture one or more years, it is better to sow timothy 
with the clover. If the land is thin and needs building up, 
there is no objection to sowing the mammoth variety for 
clover hay. If the land is rich and will produce a rank 
growth, I would not. However, if a large amount of hay 
is required, I would sow a part of the meadows to mammoth, 
sowing the thinner land with the object of prolonging the 
hay harvest, for the reason that mammoth comes into its 
best estate along with timothy. There is a class of farmers 
who desire to obtain an abundance of pasture, and of such 
a variety as will furnish a stand, with a succession of bloom 
from spring until fall. In this case I would recommend 
sowing the mammoth and the common red in equal propor- 
tions. Care should be taken, however, not to get these 
varieties mixed where the object is to procure seed from 
either, for the reason that their period of matiu-ity is so far 
apart, that either one or the other will have to be sacrificed. 
There is about as much difference between the seed maturing 
period of these, as there is between that of winter and spring 

wheat. 

ALSIKE CLOVER. 

The main place for alsike is in sloughs in the prairie 
sections, or river bottoms subject to overflow, and cheap 



90 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

lands too wet for cultivation, and too low in price to drain. 
We know of no grass its equal for this class of lands. 
Alsike will grow on land that is too wet to plow nine years 
out of ten. If sown in the slough, or on lands of the above 
description, or on the sod in the spring without plowing, and 
if the growth of wild grass is kept down, eithtr by frequent 
mowing or pasturing, to give the young alsike plants access 
to sunlight and air, there will usually be no difficulty in 
securing, ■ not only a stand, but a profitable crop. It is 
absolutely necessary, however, that the wild grass be kept 
down in some way. If it is allowed to grow until the usual 
hay harvest, and then the land mowed, the hot sun and the 
dry period likely to follow the hay season, will either scorch 
the young and tender alsike, or kill it from lack of moistm-e. 
It is essential that the young plants have every opportunity 
for development. It is remarkable how rapidly alsike will 
dry out lands of this kind, mainly, I think, by occupying 
the ground when given the above advantaj>es to the exclu- 
sion of the wild grasses. In time the roots of these grasses 
decay allowing the water to sink away. If the field is 
pastured instead of mowed, the tramping of stock will 
greatly force the water into narrow channels, in case of 
sloughs or swales with any perceptible fall. The alsike then 
naturally gives way to white clover and blue grass, if these 
grasses are established in the neighborhood, and in time we 
have a mixed, permanent pasture. I know of many farmers 
in Iowa, where sloughs have been converted by this method 
from unsightly wastes to exceedingly profitable pastures or 
meadows This, however, is not the only place for alsike 
clover. It does fairly well on good corn land, as a mixture 
in a permanent pasture, not yielding the quantity either of 
pasture or hay, but of superior quality. In sections where 
the insects peculiar to the common red clover prevail, it may 
be substituted for it on any land, for the time being; as also 



Corn and Clover Culture. 91 

in sections of the country where the winter cHmate is so 
severe that the common red or mammoth varieties are in 
danger of winter killing. 

WHITE CLOVER, 

Of white clover it is not necessary to speak, further 
than to say that, as a rule, farmers do not appreciate its 
value. It is their good friend, although like many other 
friends, it has its disagreeable traits. It is blamed for 
causing, horses to slobber, justly perhaps, but other clovers 
may well share part of the blame, at the period at least when 
the seed is ripening. It is blamed for bloaiing cattle, and 
sometimes does; so do the other clovers when not properly 
handled. I will hazard the opinion, however, that were it 
not for white clover, blue grass would not be much of a 
success in many sections. These two are married; and no 
priest can forbid the bans, and no courts dissolve the bonds 
of union. The white clover feeds the blue grass with 
nitrogen, and thus it is growing while the blue grass is 
taking its natural two months siesta or midsummer nap. 
Then it modestly falls in the background, when the fall rains 
come and the blue grass begins to grow, and stretch out, and 
cover the ground. 

ALFALFA CLOVER. 
Alfalfa land is land that has a light soil of good depth, 
and a porous subsoil, resting on water-bearing sand. It 
requires a climate for growing, so hot and dry that when the 
clover is cut one-fourth in bloom, it can be cured readily. As 
regards crimson clover, it has not yet been developed to a 
point where it can be safely sown as far north as southern 
Wisconsin, nor even as southern Iowa and central Illinois. 
In time it may betome acclimated, and have a gradual 
northward extension, but at present it fits into southern 
conditions and the light sandy soils of New Jersey. 



92 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

ANOTHER CLASS OF GROWERS. 

Reference has already been made to the kind of clover 
best adapted to the needs of the farmer who adopts a rotation 
of crops. I will refer to another class of farmers: the ones 
who are brought to realize, what they did not believe years 
ago, would ever happen, that their land has lost much of its 
virgin fertility, and who now wish to grow clover for fertility 
and if possible for seed, and ask what kind they shall sow, 
how much seed, and how they shall manage it. The plain 
answer to this is, sow the mammoth. Ten pounds of seed 
per acre, sown with spring grain and well covered; or on 
winter grain before the frost begins to leave the ground, or 
on dryer land and in dryer sections, sow alone without a 
nurse crop, and harrow in. A stand can be secured, usually, 
in any of these ways. If secured, it should not be pastured 
very closely in the fall, and on dryer land not at all. It may 
be pastured in the spring up to the first of June, and even 
later, in wet seasons, up to July first, provided sufficient 
stock is turned on to eat it down even. Or it may be mowed 
off, provided the mowing is done early and often enough, 
up to the first of June. 

THE SEED CROPS 
Treated in this way, mammoth clover will furnish a 
seed crop in August with reasonable certainty. It should 
be cut and threshed when ripe, and it is better not to wait 
for the late heads to ripen. It should not be allowed to 
stand until the haulm is rotten, but should be threshed as 
soon as it is dry enough, which in hot, dry weather, will be 
in from three to five days. If it is intended to follow this 
crop with winter wheat the land should be plowed as soon 
as possible. If with corn, it may be pastured as closely as 
desired until late in the fall. There is no better place, we 
may here remark, to apply manure than on clover sod 



Corn and Clover Culture. 93 

intended for corn. The reason the land should be plowed 
as soon as possible for wheat is, to give time to prepare a 
solid seed-bed. The reason the plowing should be delayed 
as long as possible for corn is, to keep the soil filled with live 
roots, in order to arrest the waste of nitrogen during the 
fall rains. 

COVERING SEED. 

A few words as to the method of covering seed. 
Western clover growers brought with them from the east, 
the practice of sowing on the surface on spring grain, and 
allowing the first rain to cover it, and also the practice of 
sowing on the last snow in March. Farmers are very 
conservative, and do not change their methods, especially 
when they are taught, as they have been by European and 
eastern authorities, that clover seed will not grow when 
covered one-fourth, or, at most, one-half inch deep. Some 
two years ago I requested the Iowa Experiment Station to 
make some experiments in covering clover from one-half 
to four inches deep. While the clover that was covered one- 
half inch deep came up the quickest, and for a time looked 
the best, that covered two inches deep was, on the whole, 
the best, while that covered three inches deep stood the 
severe drouth better than any other. 

ON SPRING GRAIN. 

If sown on spring grain, the depth of the covering will 
depend on the character of the soil; if it is light, we would 
give the clover the same covering that we give spring grain; 
if heavy clay soil, we would cover it more lightly. It should 
be noted that self-sown clover is always sown in the fall 
when the seed ripens; that it lies on the ground all winter, 
having the advantage, however, of the haulm for protection. 
Farmers have often noted, by the way, that clover sown in 
chaff is sure to grow. An important question arises 



94 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

in connection with the sowing of any of these clovers, as 
to the character of the companion crop, or, as it is ordinarily 
called, the nurse crop with which it is sown. The term, 
" nurse crop," is misleading. Any grain sown with clover 
and allowed to mature, is always a damage and never a 
benefit. It nourishes the clover to its death . Nevertheless, 
to save a year's use of the land, farmers nearly always sow 
a companion crop, and hence treat clover as a catch crop. 
The best companion crop is rye, sown in the fall and pas- 
tured off in the spring; thus giving the clover the full use 
of the land as fast as it can occupy it. I have never 
known a failure of clover managed in this way, even in the 
dryest seasons. The pasturing of rye, when the land is in fit 
condition, with small cattle or with hogs, is a positive benefit 
in itself, as their treading compacts the soil and enables it 
the more readily to withstand moisture. If pastured when 
the land is wet, it of course will be injurious. 

EARLY SOWING THE BEST. 

Clover seldom fails, except on spongy and undrained 
land, if sown in the spring on winter wheat, and the earlier 
it is sown after the snow is off the ground, and before 
freezing and thawing begins, the better. It is dangerous to 
wait until freezing and thawing are well nigh over, for the 
reason that if the tlover is not deeply covered by this 
process, it may spring up too quickly, get into the third 
leaf, and catch a frost that occasionally proves fatal. Of the 
grains, barley or spring wheat are preferable to oats. The 
broad leaf of oats shades the ground so thoroughly that the 
clover has little chance to become hardy, or to grow vigor- 
ously. Hence, when the oat crop is removed in harvest, a 
few hot da) s or a prolonged dry spell will in all probability 
kill the clover. 

ON WILD LAND. 

Red and mammoth clover, and alsike, may be estab- 



Corn and Clover Culture. 95 

lished on wild lands, whether prairie or newly cleared 
timber, land by sowing on the surface in the spring, and 
then keeping the native grasses closely pastured during the 
period of their most rapid growth. The stand is, however, 
difficult to maintain when blue grass is sown with it, for the 
reason that clover is a biennial, and the farmer is not like'y 
to allow it to go to seed. I have, however, maintained a 
clover pasture of this kind for eight years by simply spread- 
ing over it in the fall of ihe year, second crop clover that 
was too light in yield for threshing; allowing the cattle to 
eat it, and then not pasturing it so closely as to prevent 
more or less of it going to seed. 

ON OLD PASTURES. 

Do not hesitate to introduce clover on old timothy 
pasture. It will be noticed when clover and timothy are 
sown together, the first crop is mainly clover, the second 
timothy, and in the third clover comes in again. It can 
only do so by self-seeding; and if clover, by self-seeding, 
can hold its own among timothy, why can it not when sown 
by hand on bare ground in the latter part of winter? 

VITALITY OF SEED. 
It will be noted that clover will lie two or three years 
in a manure pile, and then grow when the manure is spread 
on the ground. It can be inferred from this that three 
conditions are essential to the gruwth of the clover plant, 
moisture, heat and more or less light; not one or two of 
these conditions, but all three. If you will lift up the edge 
of a stack of clover in the month of June, and notice how 
far in the clover has sprouted, you will get an object-lesson 
as to the conditions under which clover seed grows. It should 
always be borne in mind that the mammoth clover and the 
common red are, speaking in a loose way, biennials: that 
is, they grow one year, mature seed the next, and then die. 



96 - Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym.en. 

Strictly speaking, however, they are not biennials; for the 
reason that the common red will mature seed the first 5^ear, 
and the mammoth in all probability would if the season was 
long enough. They can by pasturing be continued to three 
years; they are, therefore, strictly speaking, perennials. 
From lack of correct knowledge on this point a great many 
farmers make mistakes. They conclude if they sow mam- 
moth clover one spring and have a fine crop of seed the 
next year, and the stand seems good, they will take another 
crop of seed the third year. In this they will be mistaken. 
They will get but from one-third to half a crop the third 
year, and that mainly from seed that failed to come up the 
spring it was sown, but came up the second year. It is 
evident, therefore, that if half the sowing were made in the 
spring or first fall, crops of clover might be taken from year 
to 3'ear, if desirable, providing that thtre was always 
enough scatterings to reseed the land 

SEKD PER ACRE. 
Another point is the amount of seed to be sown to the 
acre. This again varies greatly under different conditions. 
On land sown to clover for the first time, there should not 
be sown less than ten pounds of the mammoth or common 
red clover seed to the acre, and four pounds of the alsike. 
On lands that have been growing clover it is not necessary 
to sow so much for two reasons; first, there is more or less 
clover seed in the ground, and second, the clover-root 
microbe is abundant. 

CLOVER SICKNESS. 
The only sense in which the term ' ' clover sickness' ' is 
applicable in this country is when the potash and 
phosphoric acid in the soil is exhausted and the clover will 
not grow. Prof. Phelps, of the Storrs Agricultural school, 
gives a very interesting account of his experience with 



Corn and Clover Culture. 97 

clover. He found that on land where clover refused to 
grow, that by taking soil from land that did produce it, and 
scattering it over the unproductive soil, the latter became 
inoculated with the bacteria that belongs to clover, and in 
that way clover production was established. When land 
refuses to grow clover, therefore, it usually means that it is 
not inoculated with the clover microbe, and by sowing it 
with soil from land that is, the difficulty is removed. In 
Germany they sticcessfully follow this practice. 

CLOVER HAY. 

The greatest difficulty encountered in gathering the 
clover hay crop, is in properly curing it. In curing clover 
hay it is essential to avoid the presence of any wet bunches, 
and also handling it after sundown, or under unfavorable 
atmospheric conditions, for an hour before sundown. If the 
clover is put into large mows, or large stacks, with wet 
bunches in it, or when it is moist from dew or other causes, 
there is great danger of spontaneous combustion. It is due 
to sa}' that under prevailing conditions, much of the clover 
hay put up is greatl}^ damaged. It is often allowed to 
become too ripe before it is cut. It should be cut when the 
more advanced heads are beginning to turn brown. It is 
also often allowed to lie too long in the swath and become 
sunburnt; thus losing the leaves and involving a large excess 
of woody matter in the stalk. 

TESTING CLOVER SEED. 

How much the "catch," as it is termed, depends on 
the seed sown, cannot be determined unless the seed has 
been tested. We should test that we may know the germi- 
nating quality of all seeds sown, for if we know what per 
cent of the seed will grow, we can determine what amount 
to sow on a given area of land. 



98 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

HOW TO TEST. 
In testing clover, or any other seed, use sawdust as the 
material to hold moisture. For clover, fill a plate or shallow 
dish of any kind with wet sawdust; cover this with a cloth, 
on which the seed should be placed, when the cloth should 
be folded back over the seed. The seed is out of the water 
but will get moisture sufficient for germinating if kept in a 
warm room. It is easy to count off all or a portion of the 
seed, to get the percentage of growth after three 
or four days. 



CKapter 4* 

Milk and Cream Testing. 

THE BABCOCK TEST. 
Though nearly a decade has passed since the introduc- 
tion of the Babcock test, a majority of the dairy farmers 
throughout the country have never used it on their farms. 
This is the more remarkable when we consider that this test 
is the only method yet discovered, by which the actual 
value of the dairy cow can be determined. It would 
scarcely be believed, if we did not know it to be so, that so 
inportant a factor in progressive dairy work would be so 
neglected. It is difficult to assign a reason for this neglect, 
.on the part of so man}^ farmers, to apply in their business 
a system that carries with it so many advantages. Whether 
it is lack of appreciation of the real merits of the test, or 
some other cause, that breeds this indifference it is diffiicult 
to assert. The truth is apparent, however, that hundreds of 
dairy farmers who would insure to themselves innumerable 
benefits, by using the test in their herds, are totally neglect- 
ful of it. All dairymen, though, are not thus indifferent. 
Many today, are using the test right along, and are reaping 
the fruits of their progressiveness, in the possession of more 
valuable herds and larger returns in milk production. To 
the dairyman, therefore, who would keep up with the pro- 
cession its use is a necessity. 

BENEFITS OF THE TEST. 

There are many farmers in this country who will tell 
you that their success as dairymen, dates from the time 
they began using the Babcock test. Before that time it 

L..fC. l'" 



100 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

was largely guess work with them. They judged a cow b}^ 
the quantity of milk she gave, and by so doing, were often 
misled as to her real value. This not infrequently led to 
their keeping cows, year after year, that did not pay for the 
feed they consumed; while lighter milkers that were really 
paying a profit, were disposed of. The first important 
lesson taught them by using the test, was that their former 
methods of determining a cow's fitness for a place in the 




"No-Till" Babcock Tester for Dair3'meii. The Sharpies Co., Cliic.ig-o. 

dairy, were absolutely valueless. Animals the)^ had once 
believed to be good were shown to possess little merit; while 
others, before considered unprofitable, unmistakably 
demonstrated that they possessed superior dairy qualities. 
This truth was a revelation to the dairy farmers; and by 
taking advantage of the light thus gained, they were 
enabled to transform a discouraging, poor-paying business 
into one of pleasure and profit. The painstaking, practical 
farmer, experiences no difficulty in determining the actual 
value of his cows, when he uses the test. It enables him to 
distinguish the good from the medium, and the medium from 
the poor; thus rendering it easy for him to get rid of the 
unprofitable animals, watch the development of the doubtful 



Milk and Cream Testing. 101 

ones, and push to the Hmit of their capacity those shown to 
possess superior dairy quahties. It not only shows him 
what cows to keep and what ones to reject, but it teaches 
him the secret of economical feeding. Where he before fed 
all cows in his herd the same ration, without regard to 
results, the test enables him to detect the physiological 
peculiarities of the different animals, and to provide a ration, 
both in kind and quantity adapted to their individual 
requirements. We do not mean by this that he can increase 
the amotmt of fat in a given quantity of milk by the 
quality or amount of feed given the cow, but the quality 
of milk produced by each animal being determined by the 
test, he will know to what cows expensive feeds can be 
fed with a profit, and what ones will not warrant such 
feeding. To illustrate: If it is shown by the test that a 
certain cow is producing milk, right along, that contains 
from four and one-half to five per cent of fat, the farmer 
will know that it will pay to feed that cow, up to the limit 
of her capacity, on feeds rich in milk-producing elements, 
because the qualit}^ of her milk will warrant him in 
doing so. If, on the other hand, the test shows her to 
be giving milk containing only three and one-half per 
cent, or less, of fat, it will not always be advisable to 
feed her large quantities of high-priced feeds; as the 
money -producing content of her mils will not pay for the 
increased outlay. In this regard, the farmer who uses the 
test, and is guided bj^ the lessons it teaches, has an 
immeasurable advantage over the one who never employs 
it. He has an accurate knowledge of the existence 
of certain conditions, which the other, at best, can only 
guess at. He not only knows to a certainty what ones are 
his best cows, but he is enabled to tell just how much 
better one is than another, and by intelligent experiment, 
can learn just how much, and what kinds of feed to 



102 



Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



give each cow to secure from her the most profitable returns. 
What useful knowledge this is for the dairyman to 
have, and how important it is to the welfare of his 
business that he possess it. It removes the veil of uncer- 
tainty from every detail in milk production, and enables 
him to be guided, at all times, by facts and conditions, 
of the existence of which there is no doubt. Then, if the 




The Ideal Babcock Tester. The Creamery Package Mfg-. Co., Chicag-o, IJl. 

farmer would know the value of his cows he must test 
them. If he would know whether they are a source 
of profit or of loss to him, he must test them. If he 
would know the secret of economical feeding, he must 
test them. If he would be a wide-awake, successful 
dairy farmer, he must learn the secrets of the business, 
revealed only by the constant use of the Babcock test. 

The farmer who tests his cows is in a better position 
to know the physical condition of his stock, as regards 
healthfulness, than is the one who does not. The test is 
sensitive to very slight changes in the physical condition 
of stock. If a cow is feverish, she will usually show an 
abnormally high test. If exposed to severe cold the test 
will be low. If roughly handled or unduly excited, the 
unfavorable results will always be recorded by the test. 



Milk and Cream Testing. 103 

Therefore, if a cow that is receiving good care, and 
regular and proper feed, is found to vary frequently in 
her test, it is a pretty sure indication that somethinjf is 
wrong with her. It indicates that she is not in a healthy 
condition, and needs the services of a competent veter- 
inarian. The test may thus reveal the presence 
of physical complications in their incipient stage, that 
would not otherwise be detected 

Another benefit arising from the use of the test by 
the farmer is, he is not wholly dependent upon the creamery 




Standard Babcock Tester. Turoine style. The Sharpies Co., Chicagfo. 

proprietor for a knowledge of what his cows are doing. 
Nearly all creameries now pay for milk on a butter fat 
basis; the farmer receiving pay in proportion to the fat 
his milk contains. It is wise for the farmer to know 
of himself how much this is. We do not wish to infer 
by these statements that creamerymen are dishonest; for as 
a general thing we do not believe they are. It must be 
admitted, however, it is unwise and impractical to entrust 
knowledge of the most important feature of a man's 
business to another, while he, himself remains in absolute 
ignorance of it. Unpleasant complications are often avoided 
by the farmer keeping a record of what his cows are 
doing, by testing them himself. The creameryman may 
be strictly honest in his dealings with a patron, yet the 



104 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

latter may think his cows are testing too low. Such a 
condition is apt to breed suspicion and discontent, which 
would not exist, was the patron testing his cows at home. 
As a general thing creamerymen prefer to have their 
patrons test their herds; as by so doing a prolific source 
of dissatisfaction is removed. 

Another advantage in taking tests at home is, it 
enables the farmer to early determine the 

.VAI.UE OF YOUNG STOCK. 

Young heifers should be watched closely the first 
season they give milk. The older cow that has been 
tried and proven, may not need as close attention; but 
the j^oung animal should be tested often, and the 
character of the work she is doing carefully noted. 
Remember that she is only partially developed, and in 
order that her best qualities may be brought into full 
vigor, careful feeding and handling are necessary. 
Frequent tests will show the effects of such feeding and 
care. If she possesses the true dairy instinct, and is 
properl}^ handled, the test will show a gradual improve- 
ment in the quahty of her milk. It may also suggest to* 
the careful farmer changes in the ration given her. 
Remember the young heifer is an untried proposition; an 
unsolved problem of cause and effect. The feed and 
care given her are causes that should produce certain 
desirable effects. The test shows whether or not these 
effects are realized. 

LABOR IN TESTING. 

Some farmers may say, "all this testing and record 
keeping involves too much labor, and we have not the 
time to devote to it without neglecting other work on the 
farm." True, it takes time, some labor, and a good deal 
of intelligent thought and judgment; but for what purpose 
are you dairying? Is it for profit, or do you view it as a 



Milk and Cream Testing. 105 

mere incident in farm life, secondary to every other duty 
that life involves, and entitled to no time or attention that 
can be otherwise employed? If this is all the importance 
a farmer attaches to the dairy branch of his farm labors, 
it is surely of minor consideration how little time he 
devotes to it, or how soon he abandons it altogether. On 
the other hand, if he wishes to make dairying profitable, 
he must devote to it the time and attention necessary for 
the accomplishment of this purpose. Any labor necessar}- 
to a right understanding of his business, cannot be with- 
held from it without injurious effects. The importance 
of every detail must be fully recognized, and given 
proper attention. 

MAKING TEST ON THE P'ARM. 

In making tests on the farm the first thing necessar}- 
is the test machine. This may vary in size, according ta 
the number of cows in the herd to be tested. A machine 
holding from ten to fifteen bottles is large enough for a 
herd of from twenty to forty cows. If the farmer desires 
to test each of his cows but once a month, a small 
machine will answer his purpose, as he can divide his 
herd into groups, testing one group each week, or as often 
as necessary to test all the cows during the month. The 
cost of such a machine is not great, perhaps from eight to 
ten dollars; a very small outlay when the benefits resulting 
from its use are considered. Though a description of the 
methods employed in making, the test have been published 
many times, the fact remains that not one farmer out 
of ten knows how it is done, for the reason that they 
have never given the matter any attention. Therefore, as 
this book is especially intended for the dairy farmer, we 
will endeavor to give in detail the manner of making 
the test. 



106 Comnion-Sense Ideas for J^airyynen. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE. 

The gear of the machine is so proportioned that the 
wheel that carries the test bottles makes about ten 
revolutions to one of the crank; with this it is easy to 
impart from seven hundred to eight hundred revolutions 
per minute to the horizontal. Within the horizontal 
wheel are placed holders made from heavy sheet copper, 
to which are soldered cups or tubes, inclined so as to 
make an angle of about thirty degrees with the horizontal, 
for the support of the test bottles. The horizontal is 
surrounded with a copper jacket with a cover. This 
serves the double purpose of supplying heat for the test, 
by pouring hot water into it, and of arresting the hot 
acid should a bottle break while the machine is in 
motion. Of course the details of construction differ in 
different machines, but the general plan is the same. 

TEST BOTTLES. 

These should contain up to the neck, not less than 
forty nor more than fifty cubic centimeters. Each division 
of the graduated scale, upon the neck of the bottle, repre- 
sents .04 of a cubic centimeter, and in order to facilitate the 
reading, the neck is made of such a diameter that the 
marks of the scale are about one and one-half millimeters 
apart. Five of these divisions representing one per cent. 

The pipette for measuring milk may be of any form, 
but one with a rather wide opening at the lower end, to 
allow the milk to run out rapidly, is to be preferred. It 
should contain, when filled to the mark, 17.6 cubic 
centimeters. 

The best measure for acid is a graduate or cylinder 
made of glass, with a lip to pour from, and a single 
mark at 17.5 cubic centimeters; the quantity of acid 
required to be put into each test bottle. Commercial 



Milk and Cream Testing. 107 

sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82, or about 
ninety per cent pure is used in making the test. 

SAMPLING THE MILK. 

Every precaution should be taken to have the sample 
represent, as nearly as possible, the whole lot of milk 
from which it is taken. Milk fresh from the cow, while 
still warm, and before the cream is separated in a layer, 
may be thoroughly mixed b}' pouring three or four times 
from one vessel to another. Samples taken at once from 
milk mixed in this waj- are the most satisfactory. Milk 
that has stood until a layer of cream has formed should 
be poured more times, or until the cream is thoroughly 
broken up and the whole appears homogeneous. No clots 
of cream should appear upon the surface when the milk is 
left quiet for a moment. With proper care any milk that 
has not coagulated, or that has not been exposed to the 
air until the surface of the cream has become dried, ma}- 
be mixed so that a representative sample may be taken. 
Milk should not be poured more times than is necessary; as 
continual mixing in this way is liable to churn the cream, 
forming little granules of butter that quickly rise to the 
surface. When this occurs it is impossible to obtain a 
fair sample. 

It is impractical to sample a large amount of 
sour milk; but a small sample, of a pint or a quart, may be 
thoroughly mixed by adding five per cent of ammonia 
water, which will dissolve the curd and permit a uniform 
mixture being made. When ammonia is added the final 
result should be increased five per cent. Samples from 
milk that has become coagulated are, however, never as 
satisfactorj' as those taken when the milk is in proper 
condition . 

MEASURING THE MILK. 

When the milk has been sufficienth' mixed, the 



108 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

pipette is filled b}^ placing the lower end in the milk 
and sucking at the upper end until the milk rises above 
the mark on the stem. Then remove the pipette from the 
mouth, and quickly close the tube at the upper end, by 
pressing the end of the index finger upon it to prevent 
access of air; so long as this is done the milk cannot flow 
from the pipette. Holding the pipette in a perpendicular 
position, with the mark on the level with the eye, carefully 
relieve the pressure on the finger, so as to admit air slowly 
to the space above the milk. When the upper surface 
of the milk coincides with the mark upon the stem, the 
pressure should be renewed to stop the flow of milk. Next 
place the point of the pipette in the mouth of one of the 
test bottles and remove the finger, allowing the milk to 
flow into the bottle. The test bottle should be held in a 
slightly inclined position so that the milk will flow down 
the side of the tube, leaving a space for the air to escape 
without clogging the neck. After waiting a short time for 
the pipette to drain, blow in the upper end to expel the 
milk held by capillary attraction in the point. If the 
pipette is not dry when used, it should be filled with the 
milk to be tested and this thrown away before taking the 
test sample. If several samples of the same milk are taken 
for comparison, the milk should be poured once from one 
vessel to another after each sample is measured. Neglect 
of this precaution may make a perceptible difference in 
the results, through the separation of cream, especially 
when the milk examined is rich. Persons who have had 
no experience in the use of a pipette will do well to 
practice a short time, by measuring water into a test 
bottle before attempting to make an analysis. The 
manipulation is easily acquired, and, with a little practice,, 
milk may be measured nearly as rapidly with a pipette as 
with a graduate, and with much greater accuracy. 



Milk and Cream Testing. 109 

ADDING THE ACID. 

When the milk has been measured into the test 
bottle the necessary amount of sulphuric acid may be added 
immediately, or the bottles may be left for a considerable 
time without materially changing the result. Samples 
that have remained in the test bottles more than a week 
have given the same amount of fat as those tested imme- 
diately after being measured. If the milk has become 
coagulated, the curd should be broken up, by shaking 
the test bottle before the acid is added. 

The volume of commercial sulphuric acid required 
for a test is approximately the same as that of the milk, 
17.5 cubic centimeters for the ordinary test. If too little 
acid is added the casein is not all held in solution 
throughout the test, and an imperfect separation of the 
fat results. On the other hand, if too much acid is used, 
the fat itself is attacked. The acid need not be measured 
with great accuracy, any quantity between seventeen and 
eighteen cubic centimeters will answer the purpose. This 
can usually be determined by observation. If the fat in 
the tube contains white specks the acid is either too weak 
or too little has been added; if black specks appear the 
acid is either too strong or too much has been added. 
The volume of fat when the test has been properly 
made, is perfectly clear. 

Care must be taken in handling the acid, to avoid 
getting Qxvs of it upon the skin or clothing, as it is very 
corrosive. If by accident any is spilled upon the hands or 
clothes, it should be washed off immediately. A prompt 
application of ammonia water to clothing upon which acid 
is spilled, may prevent the destruction of the fabric and 
restore the color. 

When all the samples of the milk to be tested are 
measured, readv for the test, the acid measure is filled to 



110 Commoji-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

the 17.5 cubic centimeter mark with sulphuric acid, and 
from this it is carefully poured into a test bottle containing 
milk. The test bottle should be held in a slightly inclined 
position while the acid is being poured into it, for reasons 
given in directions for measuring milk. The acid being 
much heavier than milk, sinks directly' to the bottom of the 
test bottle without mixing with the milk which floats upon 
it. The acid and milk should be thoroughly mixed together 
by gently shaking the test bottle with a rotary motion . At 
first there is a precipitation of curd from the milk, but this 
rapidly dissolves. There is a large amount of heat evolved 
by the chemical action of the acid upon the milk, and the 
solution, at first nearly colorless, soon changes to a ver}- 
dark brown. This change of color is caused b}- the 
charring of the milk sugar and, perhaps, some other 
constituents of the milk. Upon standing a short time the 
fat begins to collect upon the surface, not in a clear layer, 
but having at first the appearance of a dirt}' cream. The 
separation of fat by gravity alone is not complete, even 
when the bottles are left standing for several hours; with 
the centrifuge, however, a perfect separation is accomplished 
in a few minutes. 

WHIRLING THE BOTTLES. 

The test bottles containing the mixture of milk and 
acid may be placed in the machine directly after the 
acid is added, or they may stand several hours without 
harm. An even number of bottles should be whirled at 
the same time, and they should be placed in the wheel 
opposite to each other, so that the equilibrium of the 
machine will not be disturbed. When all of the test 
bottles are placed in the apparatus the cover is put upon 
the copper jacket, and the machine is turned at such a rate 
that the wheel carrjdng the bottles will make from six 
hundred to eight hundred revolutions per minute; this 



Milk and Cream Testing. HI 

motion being sustained for at least five minutes. If the 
wheel is less than twenty inches in diameter the speed 
should be proportionately increased, or the whirHng should 
be continued for a longer time. When the bottles are 
placed in the machine directly after the acid is added, the 
separation may be effected without any extra heat; as 
that caused by chemical action is sufficient to keep the fat 
liquid. If the bottles have stood after the acid is added 
until the contents are cooled below one hundred degrees, 
boiling water should be poured into the jacket before 
putting the bottles into the machine. The proper degree 
of heat may also be obtained by setting the bottles for a 
time, in water heated to nearly the boiling point before 
putting them in the machine. If the machine is stopped 
after about five minutes a layer of fat will be found upon 
the upper surface of the Hquid in the tube. This fat will 
not usually be clear; this, however, will make no difference 
in the result, as the subsequent treatment will clarify it. 

As soon as the bottles have been suflBciently whirled 
they should be filled to the neck with hot water. This 
may be done with a pipette, but a more convenient method 
is to place a vessel, containing boiling water, above the 
machine, and by means of a syphon made from a small 
rubber tube, run the water directly into the bottles without 
removing them from the wheel. The syphon should be 
provided with a glass tip and also with a pinch-cock with 
which to control the flow of water. If only a few tests are 
to be made, however, the use of the pipette will be found 
sufficiently convenient. After putting in the water the cover 
should be replaced, and the machine turned for one or two 
minutes, when more hot water is added, filling the tube to 
about the seven percent mark, when the machine should be 
turned again for a short time. During this process the fat 
will slowly rise into the graduated tube, losing its cloudy 



112 Coinnton-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

appearance as it passes through the water. While this work 
is being accomplished the water in the machine should be 
kept hot. If the fat in some of the tubes still has a cloud} 
appearance after completing the turning, the cover should 
be replaced upon the machine and heat applied for a few 
minutes, when the fat should become clear and in condition 
to be measured. When the bottles are allowed to cool to 
a point where the fat will crystalize, and then warmed 
again the fat will usually be much clearer than before, but 
as this does not materially change the volume of fat. it is 
considered unnecessary . 

MEASURING THE FAT. 

The fat, when measured, should be warm enough to 
flow readily, so that the line between the acid liquid and 
the column of fat will quickly assume a horizontal 
position when the bottles are removed from the machine. 
Any temperature between one hundred and ten and one 
hundred and fifty degrees will answer; but the higher 
temperature is to be preferred. The slight difference in 
the volume of fat due to this difference in temperature is 
not sufficient to materially affect results; as a difference 
of fort}^ degrees has been found to make less than . i per 
cent difference in milk containing five per cent of fat. 

To measure the fat, take a bottle from its socket, and 
holding it in a perpendicular position, with the scale on a 
level with the eye, observe the divisions which mark the 
highest and lowest limits of the fat. The difference 
between these divisions is the per cent of fat. The reading 
can easily be taken to half divisions or to one-tenth of one 
per cent. If the column of fat is less than one division, as 
will sometimes happen with skim milk, buttermilk or whey, 
it may assume a globular form instead of of a uniform layer 
across the tube. When this occurs, the fat can usually be 
estimated with sufficient accurac)' by simple inspection. 



Milk and Cream Testing. 113 

If, however, an accurate reading is desired, a special test 
bottle should be used holding three or four times as much 
as the ordinary bottle; or a test bottle of the ordinary size, 
having a tube of less diameter, so graduated that hundredths 
of one per cent may be read. One or the other of these 
bottles should alwa3's be used when testing skim milk, 
buttermilk or whey. 

TESTING CREAM. 

The chief difficulty in testing cream lies in the 
sampling. Cream that is sour, or that has been exposed to 
the air until the surface has dried, cannot be accuratel}' 
sampled. The same is true of cream from the separator 
that is badly frothed. The latter should be allowed to 
stand for a time, or until the froth has gathered on the 
surface, when a more satisfactory sample may be procured. 
Sweet cream that is not frothy, nor too thick to flow readily 
from the pipette, may be tested with very accurate results. 
The process, however, must be modified slightly from that 
used with milk; as the amount of fat in cream is so large 
that it cannot be measured in the ordinary test bottle, 
if the usual quantity is taken for the test. A much greater 
error also results from the cream which adheres to the 
pipette, than does when milk is tested. Both of these diffi- 
culties ma>- be overcome by taking three test bottles, and 
dividing the test sample into three equal parts, as nearly 
as can be judged by the eye. The pipette is then twice 
filled with water and run into the tubes, in the same way 
as the cream. This serves to rinse the cream from the 
pipette, and at the same time, to dilute it to a point where 
it can be tested in the same way as milk. The bottles are 
then treated in the usual manner, and the reading of the 
tubes added together to ascertain the per cent of fat in the 
cream. For example: If the reading on the first bottle 
is ten per cent; on the second bottle nine and five-tenths 



114 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen . 

per cent, and on the third eleven and two-tenths per cent, 
the per cent of fat in the cream from which the sample 
was taken is thirty and seven-tenths per cent. 

Owing to the low specific gravity of cream, the test 
sample, if of the same volume, will weigh less than that 
of milk; consequently the per cent of fat as shown by the 
scale will be less than is found by gravimetric analysis; 
if, however, 17.6 cubic centimeters of cream is taken, and 
the portion adhering to the pipette is rinsed into the test 
bottle, a close approximation of the true result may be 
obtained without weighing by correcting the scale reading as 
follows: "For a scale reading of twenty per cent add twenty- 
five per cent; for a scale reading of fifteen per cent, add o.i 
per cent. Readings between these may be corrected in 
proportion. Below ten per cent no correction is necessary'-. 
HOW TO TEST A COW. 

In testing a cow always take a sample of both the 
morning's and night's milk, as there is usually quite a 
difference in the per cent of fat they contain. To do this, 
either of two methods may be employed. A half-sized 
pipette may be used taking a sample from the morning's 
milk, which is poured at once into a test bottle and set 
away until evening; then another sample is taken in the 
same manner, from the night's milk and added to the milk 
in the bottle, when the test may be made in the usual 
way. If the farmer does not have a half -sized pipette he 
may take a sample of the morning's, milk say half an ounce, 
and pour it into a pint Mason fruit jar, covering the 
jar tightly to prevent evaporation. This is set aside until 
evening, when a half ounce sample from the night's milk 
is added to it. Mix well together by. gently stirring the 
milk, fill the pipette to the 17.6 cubic centimeter mark, pour 
it into the test bottle and proceed to make the test as usual. 

In testing a cow to ascertain whether the per cent 



Milk and Cream Testing. 115 

of fat ill her milk is increasing or diminishing, care must 
be taken that the same methods are employed and the 
same conditions are observed in taking each test; other- 
wise the variations noted may be due to a change in the 
manner of testing rather than to a difference in the fat 
content of her milk. Be sure that the temperature of the 
milk at the time the test is made, is the same in each 
instance, and also, that the samples have been taken in 
the same way. 

THE COMPOSITE TEST. 

A composite test is one made from a mixture of several 
samples taken at different times from the milk of a single 
cow, or of a herd It is considered b}- many to be more 
satisfactory than a single day test. As it covers a 
longer period of time, it is more likely to contain 
samples of the cow's milk, taken when different physical 
conditions are present, and a test made from it represents 
more nearly the actual work she is doing. When a 
composite test is to be made, the farmer should provide 
Tiim.self with a number of one pint Masou fruit jars, and 
a rack or shelf suitable for holding them. Place on each 
jar the name or number of a cow to be tested. From each 
milking, saj* for a period of one week, take a sample 
of each cow's milk and put it into the jar assigned to 
her, covering the jar after the addition of each sample, to 
prevent evaporation . Care must be taken that each sample 
contains the same volume of milk. To insure this have 
your tinner make you a small dipper holding about 
one-half ounce, with the opening at the top of the cup at 
right angles with the handle. This will enable you to dip 
straight down into a pail or can of milk and draw your 
sample from any part of the vessel. Before the test is 
taken the milk should be warmed to about one hundred 
degrees, by setting the jars in hot water. If the milk is 



116 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

sour, add ammonia as before directed. Coagulation can be 
prevented by putting into each jar before the samples are 
collected a small quantity (about what will lay on the end 
of the blade of a pocket knife) of the yellow bichromate of 
potassium. As this is a deadly poison great care should be 
taken in using it. A safer and equally as satisfactory compos- 
ite test preservative is the corrosive sublimate tablets which 
can be purchased of any dealer in dairy supplies. L,ewis lye is 
sometimes used to cut coagulated samples of milk and make 
it fit for testing; in this case it is not necessary to use any 
kind of a preservative. 

Before testing, stir the contents of each jar thoroughly 
making sure that all particles of curd are dissolved and the 
cream well mixed with the milk; after which fill the pipette 
and proceed to take the test in the usual way. Sulphuric 
acid used for testing should not be left standing in an open 
vessel for any length of time, as it rapidl)' loses its strength 
if exposed to the air. The strength ot the acid can be 
readily determined by observation. If when mixed with 
the milk in the test bottle the color is light, instead of a 
very dark brown, it indicates that the acid used istoo weak> 
and a reliable test will not result. If, on the other hand, 
the fat in the tube after the test is taken contains numerous 
black specks, it indicates that the acid used is too strong 
and has charred or burned a portion of the sugar. Kither of 
these defects can be corrected by using a greater or less 
quantity of acid as the case requires. 

HEAT REQUIRED IN TESTING. 

Reference has already been made to the degree of heat 
required in making a test. This may lead some to believe 
that the greater the heat generated in the test machine the 
more accurate the test. This is a mistake. Too great a 
heat causes the fat to expand in the tube of the test bottle 



Milk and Cream Testing. 117 

and renders the reading too high. The error this occasions 
varies in amount according to the richness of the milk or 
cream tested. Prof. Woll, of the Wisconsin Experiment 
station estimates that if the readings in hot turbine testers 
are taken at a temperature of two hundred degrees, the fat 
column will have expanded so as to fill a space that is .16 
per cent too high in testing five per cent milks and .11 per 
cent too high in testing three per cent milk. Readings made 
at this high temperature in cream testing, present a much 
greater error than they do in milk. 

The following comparisons are given to show the differ- 
ence in tests made by hand testers and turbine testers in 
which the heat generated was about two hundred degrees. 
Cream that tested 22.85 per cent in the turbine tester showed 
but 21.8 per cent in the hand tester; cream showing 23.04 
per cent in the turbine tester showed but 22.36 per cent in 
the hand tester; cream testing 36.10 per cent in the turbine 
machine showed 34.30 per cent in the hand tester. These 
samples were not measured with the pipette but the weight 
of the cream was accurately determined by gravimetric 
analysis. It is estimated therefore, that cream tests read 
at a temperature of two hundred degrees, are .80 per cent 
too high for twenty-five per cent cream, .96 per cent for a 
thirty per cent cream, and 1.12 per cent for thirty-five per 
cent cream. 

In testing milk or cream in creameries where turbine 
machines are used, due allowance should be made for this 
expansion of the fat column, or the reading should be 
deferred until the bottles have cooled to a temperature of 
about one hundred and forty degrees, or until they can be 
held in the hand. 

The amount of fat in any quantity of milk, from one 
to five thousand pounds, can be readily ascertained hy 
consulting the following tables. In the left hand column is 



\ )^ 



118 Corfunon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

given the pounds of milk. Over each column to the right 
is given the per cent of fat represented by the amounts 
recorded in that column. For example, during the month 
of March a cow gave 1080 pounds of milk, showing an 
average test of 3.60 per cent. How many pounds of fat did 
her milk contain? 

Find 1000 pounds in the left hand column, then anove 
the finger to the right to column 13, which represents 3.60 
per cent; and you find the amount of fat to be 36 pounds. 
In like manner go to the right from 80 pounds to column 13 
and you will find the amount of fat to be 2.90 pounds; 
which added to 36 pounds gives 38.90 pounds, the amount 
of fat in 1080 pounds of milk testing 3.60 per cent. 
36+2.90^38.90. 

EXAMPLE. 

Find the amount of fat in 7000 pounds of milk testing 
four per cent. 

From 5000 pounds, found in the left-hand column, 
move to the right to column 21 and you find 200 pounds. 
From 2000 pounds move to the right to column 21, and you 
find 80 pounds, which added to 200 pounds gives 2 80 pounds; 
the amount of fat in 7000 pounds of milk testing four per 
cent. 

To find the number of pounds of commercial butter in 
a given amount of fat, add one-sixth of itself to the amount 
of fat to cover the churn over-run, and the result will very 
nearly represent the actual butter yield. 

EXAMPLE. 

How many pounds of commercial butter in 42 pounds 
of fat? 

Divide 42 pounds by 6, and it gives you 7 pounds, 
which added to 42 pounds, gives 49 pounds. The estimated 
amount of commercial butter in 42 pounds of fat. 



Milk and Cream Testing. 



11^ 



Pounds of fat in milk from 1 to 5000 pounds of milk testing- 
from 3 to 5 per cent. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1 1 


12 




TEST. 


3.00 


3.05 


3.10 


3.153.203.25 


3.30 


3.35 


3.40 


3.45 


3.503.55 


TEST. 


5,000 


150 


153 


155 


158 


160 


163 


165 


168 


170 


173 


175 


178 


5,000 


4,000 


120 


122 


124 


126' 128 


130 


132 


134 


136 


138 


140 


342 


4,000 


3,000 


90.0 


91.5 


93.0 


94.596.0 


97.5 


99.0 


101 


102 


104 


105 


107 


3,000 


2,000 


60.0 


61.0 


62.0 


63.064.0 


65.0 


66.067.0 


68.0 


69.0 


70.0 


71.0 


2,000 


1,000 


30.0 


30.5 


31.0 


31.5 


32.0 


32.5 


33 


33.5 


34.0 


34.5 


35.0 


35.5 


1,000 


900 


27.0 


27.5 


27.9 


28.4 


28 8 


29.3 


29.7 


3u.2 


30.6 


31.1 


31.5 


32.0 


900 


800 


24.0 


24.4 


24.8 


25.225.726.0 


26.4 


26.8 


27.2 


27.6 


28.0 


28.4 


800 


700 


21.021.4 


21.7 


22.122.4 


22.8 


23.123.5 


23! 824. 2 


24.5 


24.9 


700 


600 


18.0!l8.3 


18.6 


18.919.2 


19.5 


19.820.1 


20.4 


20.7 


21.0 


21.3 


600 


500 


15.0 


15.3 


15.5 


15.816.0 


16.3 


16.516.817.0 


17.3 


17.5 


17.8 


500 


400 


12.0 


12.2 


12.4 


12.612.8 


13 


13.213.413.6 


13.8 


14.0 


14.2 


400 


300 


9.0 


9.2 


9.3 


9.5 


9.6 


9.8 


9.910.110.2 


10 4 


10.5 


10.7 


300 


200 


6.0 


6.1 


6.2 


6.3 


6.4 


6.5 


6.6 


6.7 


6.8 


6.9 


7.0 


7.1 


200 


100 


3.0 


3.1 


3.1 


3.2 


3.2 


3.3 


3.3 


3.4 


3.4 


3.5 


3.5 


3.6 


100 


90 


2.7 


2.8 


2.8 


2.8 


2.9 


2.9 


3.0 


3.0 


3.1 


3.1 


3.2 


3.2 


90 


80 


2.4 


2.4 


2.5 


2.5 


2.6 


2.6 


2.6 


2.7 


2.7 


2 8 


2.8 


2.8 


80 


70 


2.1 


2.1 


2.2 


2.2 


2.2 


2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.4 


2.4 


2.5 


2.5 


70 


60 


1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


1.9 


1.9 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


2.1 


2.1 


2.1 


60 


50 


1.5 


1.5 


1.6 


1.6 


i.e 


1.6 


1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


17 


1.8 


1.8 


50 


40 


1.2 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.4 


1.4 


1 4 


1.4 


40 


30 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.1 


1.1 


30 


20 


.6 


.6 


.6 


.6 


.6 


.7 


.7 


.7 


.7 


.7 


.7 


.7 


20 


10 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.4 


.4 


10 


9 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


9 


8 


.2 


.2 


_2 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


8 


7 


.2 


.2 


'.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


7 


6 


.2 


.2 


.2 


_2 


.2 


.2 


2 


2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


2 


6 


5 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.'2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


5 


4 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


4 


3 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


3 


2 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


•1 


.1 


2 


1 


^— 


— 


— 


— ■ 




— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


1 



12(1 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



Pounds of fat in milk from 1 to 5,000 pounds of milk testing- 
from 3 to 5 per cent. 



13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 



TEST. '3. 6OI3. 65 3. 70'3. 75 3. 80 3. 85 3. 90 3. 95 4. 00 



4.05 



4.104.15 



TEST. 



5,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,000 
1,000 



900 
800 
700 
600 
500 
400 
300 
200 
100 



180 

144 

108 

72.0 

36.0 



32.4 
28.8 
25.2 
21.6 
18.0 
14.4 
10.8 
7.2 
3.6 



3.2 

2.y 

2.5 
2.2 
1^8 
1.4 
1.1 
.7 
.4 



183 

146 

110 

73.0 

36.5 



32 9 
29.2 
25.6 



185 188 190 193 
148 150 152 154 



111 

74.0 
37.0 



33.3 
29.6 
25.9 



195 
156 



21.922.2 



18.3 

14.6 

11.0 

7.3 

3,7 



3.3 
2.9 
2.6 
2.2 
1.8 
1.5 
l.]| 
.7 
.4 



18.5 

14.8 

11.1 

7.4 

3.7 



113 114 II61 117 
75.076.077.078.0 
37. 538. 0'38. 539.0 



834.234.7 
030.430.8 
,326.627.0 



522.8 
819.0 
015.2 
311.4 
5' 7.6 
8 3.8 



3.4 
3.0 
2.6 
2.3' 
1.9 
1.5 
1.1 
.8 
.4 



3.4 
3 
2.7 
2.3 
1.9 
1.5 
1.1 
.8 
.4 



23.1 
19.3 
15.4 
11.6 

7.7 
3.9 



3.5 
3.1 
2.7 
2.3 
1.9 
1.5 
1.2 



.4 



198 

158 

119 

79.0 

39.5 



200 

160 

120 

80.0 

40.0 



135.636.0 
231.632.0 



327.7 
4123. 7 
5|19.8 
6!lS.8 
711.9 
8 7.9 
9! 4.0 



3.5 
3.1 
2.7 
2.3 
2.0 
1.6 
1.2 



3.6 
3.2 
2.8 
2.4 
2.0 
1.6 
1.2 
.8 
.4 



28.0 
24.0 
20.0 
16.0 
12.0 
8.0 
4.0 



3.6 

3.2 
2.8 
2.4 
2.0 
1 6 
1.2 
.8 
.4 



203 


205 


208 


162 


164 


166 


122 


123 


125 


81.0 


82.0 


83.0 


40.5 


41.0 


41.5 


36.5 


36.9 


37.4 


32.4 


32.8 


33.2 


28.4 


28.7 


29.1 


24.3 


24.6 


24.9 


20.3 


20.5 


20.8 


16.2 


16.4 


16.6 


12.2 


12.3 


12.5 


8.1 


8.2 


8.3 


4.1 


4.1 


4.2 


3.7 


3.7 


3.7 


3.2 


3.3 


3.3 


2.8 


2.9 


2.9 


2.4 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.1 


2.1 


1.6 


1.6 


1.7 


1.2 


1.2 


1.2 


.8 


.8 


.8 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


9 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 









5,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,000 
1 000 



900 
800 
700 
600 
500 
400 
300 
200 
100 



90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 



Milk and Cream Testing. 



121 



Pounds of fat in milk from 1 to 5000 pounds of milk testing- 
from 3 to 5 per cent. 

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 



TEST. 


4.20 4.25 


4.30 


4.35 


4.40 


4.45 


4.50 


4.55 


4.60 


4.65 


4.70 


4.75 


TEST. 


5,000 


210 


213 


215 


218 


220 


223 


225 


228 


230 


233 


235 


238 


5,000 


4,000 


168 


170 


172 


174 


176 


178 


180 


182 


184 


186 


188 


190 


4,000 


3,000 


126 


128 


129 


131 


132 


134 


135 


137 


138 


140 


141 


143 


3,000 


2,000 


84.0 


85.0 


86.0 


87.0 


88.0 89.0 


90.0 


91.0 


92.0 


93.0 


94.0 


95.0 


2,000 


1,000 


42.0 


42.5 


43.0 


43.5 


44.0 


44.5 


45.0 


45.5 


46.0 


46.5 


47.0 


47.5 


1,000 


900 


37.8 


38.3 


38.7 


39.2 


39.6 


40.1 


40.5 


41.0 


41.4 


41.8 


42.3 


42.8 


900 


800 


33.6 


34.0 


34.4 


34.8 


35.2 35.6 


36.0 


36.4 


36.8 


37.2 


37.6 


38.0 


800 


700 


2^.4 


29.8 


30.1 


30.5 


30.831.2 


31.5 


31.9 


32.2 


32.6 


32.9 


33.3 


700 


600 


25.2 


25.5 


25.8 


26.1 


26.426.7 


27.027.3 


27.6 


27.9 


28.2 


28.5 


600 


500 


21.0 


21.3 


21.5 


21.8 


22.022.3 


22.5 


22.8 


23.0 


23.3 


23.5 


23.8 


500 


400 


16.8 


17.0 


17.217.4 


17.617.8 


18.0 


18.2 


18.4 


18.6 


18.8 


19.0 


400 


300 


12.6 


12.8 


12.913.1 


13.213.4 


13.5 


13.7 


13.8 


14.0 


14.1 


14.3 


300 


200 


8.4 


S.5 


8.6 


8.7 


8.8 


8.9 


9.0 


9.1 


9.2 


9.3 


9-4 


9.5 


200 


.100 


4.2 


4.3 


4.3 


4.4 


4.4 


4.5 


4.S 


4.6 


4.6 


4.7 


4.7 


4.8 


100 


90 


3.8 


3.8 


3.9 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


4.1 


4.1 


4.1 


4.2 


4.2 


4.3 


90 


80 


3.4 


3.4 


3.4 


3.5 


3.5 


3.6 


3.6 3.6 


3.7 


3.7 


3.8 


3.8 


80 


70 2.9 


3.6 


3.0 


3.0, 3.1 


3.1 


3.2 3.2 


3.2 


3.3 


3.3 


3.3 


70 


60 2.5 


2.6 


2.6 


2.6 


2.6 


2:7 


2.7| 2.7 


2.8 


2.8 


2.8 


2.9 


60 


50 2.1 


2.1 


2.2 


2.2 


2.2 


2.2 


2.3 2.3 


2.3 


2.3 


2.4 


2.4 


50 


40 1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


1.7 


1.8 


1.8 


1.8 1.8 


1.8 


1.9 


1.9 


1.9 


40 


30 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.4 


1.4 


1.4 


1.4 


1.4 


1.4 


30 


20 


.8 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


.9 


1.0 


20 


10 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.5 


.5 


.5 


.5 


.5 


.5 


10 


9 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


9 


8 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 




4 




4 


A 


8 


7 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 




3 




3 


.3 


7 


6 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 




3 




3 


.3 


6 


5 


.2 


.2 


.2 


2 


.2 


2 


.2 


2 


.2 




2 




2 


.2 


5 


4 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


^2 


1 


^2 


.2 




2 




2 


.2 


4 


3 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


'l 


.1 


.1 




1 




1 


.1 


3 


2 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 




1 




1 


.1 


2 


1 


— 


— 


— 


• — 


— 


— ■ 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1 



122 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



Pounds of fat in milk from 1 to 5,000 pounds of milk testing- 
from 3 to 5 per cent, 



37 38 39 40 41 



TBST. 


4.804.85 


4.90 


4.95 


5.00 




1 






1 




5,000 


■24O 


243 


245 


248 


250 


















4,000 


192 194 


196 


198 


200 


















3,000 


144 146 


147 


149 


150 


















2,000 96.0 97.0 98.0 99.0 


100 


















1,000 


48.0 


48.5 


49.0 


49.5 


50.0 


















900 


43.2 


43.7 


44.1 


44.6 


45.0 


















80u 38.4 38.8 39.239.6 


40.0 


















700 33.634.034.334.7 


35.0 


















600 28.8 29.129.4 29.7 


30.0 


















500 24 24.3 24.5 24.8 


25.0 


















400 19.219.4 19.61 '.8 


20.0 


















30014.4 14.614.7 


14.9 


15.0 


















200 


9.6, 9.7 


9.8 


9.9 


10.0 












1 




100 


4.8 


4.9 


4.9 


5.0 


5.0 


















90 


4.3 


4.4 


4.4 


4.5 


4.5 


















80 


3.8; 3.9 


3.9 


4.0 


4.0 


















70 


3.4 


3.4 


3.4 


3.5 


3.5 


















60 


2.9 


2.9 


2.9 


3.0 


3.0 


















50 


2.4 


2.4 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


















40 


1.9 


1.9 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


















30 


1.4 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 


















20 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


















10 


.5 


.5 


.5 


.5 


.5 


















9 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.5 


















8 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


.4 


















7 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


.4 


















6 


.3I .3 


.3 


.3 


.3 


















5 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


.3 


















4 .2 


.2 


.2 


.2 


2 


















3' .1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.'2 


















2' .1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


.1 


















1 — 








.1 



















CKapter 5- 

Care of Milk. 

The necessity of properly caring for milk is recognized 
by every practical dairyman. It is a factor equal in impor- 
tance with selection and feeding. A dairyman's cows may 
be the best that wise selection can procure, and the methods 
he employs in handling and feeding them, above criticism, 
yet if the necessary precautions in* caring for his milk are 
neglected, he may lose all the advantages these conditions 
bring to him. 

Pm-e milk is absolutely essential to the production of 
high grade dairy products. Butter and cheese that will pass 
may be made from milk of questionable purit}^; but the 
goods that meet with the highest favor and bring the best 
prices on the market must be manufactured from pure milk. 
Then, to insure the best results obtainable, great care in 
handHng the milk is necessary. The first lesson for the 
farmer to know is, what constitutes good care? To under- 
stand this question fully he must know what conditions to 
avoid and what to accept. This of necessity involves some 
little knowledge of cause and effect; you may call it scientific 
information if you please. 

It is one thing to know that certain facts exist, and 
another to know why they exist. To know a thing is so, 
does not require so wide a range of information as it does to 
know why it is so. A great many people can recognize 
effects readily enough, who have no understanding whatever 
of causes. To possess a knowledge of cause and effect broad- 
ens the conception, and enables the individual to intelligently 

[123] 



124 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

and successfully work toward the end he wishes to attain. 
It has been wisely said that ' ' a scientific explanation of an 
ascertained truth enlarges the basis of its application, and 
allows the investigator as well as the practical worker to 
approach his work in a much more satisfactory way." No 
business calls for a wider range of knowledge of effects and 
their causes, than does the dairy industry. If one hnk in a 
chain is defective the strength of the whole is impaired. So 
if the importance of a single detail of the dairymen's work 
is misunderstood it may lead to unprofitable results. He 
will learn to know effects from experience; but a knowledge 
of causes can only be acquired by careful investigation. 
Then in the case of milk it is not enough for the dairyman 
to know that certain conditions exist, but he should learn 
wbv they exist. If he is making butter on the farm he finds 
it difficult to get as good an article at one time as he does 
at another; as without any perceptible change in the condi- 
tion of his stock, or the methods employed in feeding or 
handling them, his milk suddenly becomes bad ; and if 
taken to the factory it is found to be sour or tainted. It is 
easy enough for him to see the effects, but what he wants to 
know most is, what are the causes and how can they be 
removed? Had he a knowledge of whj- milk becomes sour 
or why it is tainted, stringy, etc., the causes might readily 
be detected and their influence destroyed. 

GKRMS IN MILK. 

Scientific research has established beyond question that 
all the varied conditions of milk are due to the presence in 
it of bacterial life. Every housewife knows that if she boils 
the milk the length of time it remains sweet is prolonged. 
Why is this? Simply the germs that cause milk to turn 
sour have been greatly diminished by the effect of heat, and 
it takes a longer time for the remaining germs to multiply 
in sufficient numbers to produce a sour condition. Cooling 



Care of Milk. 125 

milk to a low temperature will keep it sweet agreater length 
of time, not because the germs it contains have been des- 
destroyed by the cooHng, but their development has been 
retarded; hence the length of time the milk will remain 
sweet has been increased in Hke proportion. Cooling milk, 
say to a temperature of forty-five or fifty degrees, does not 
destroy the bacterialhfe it contains, but it partially suspends 
its development. On the other hand, if milk is sterilized or 
boiled for a sufficient length of time, the germs it contains 
can be totally destroyed. Cooling milk to any degree above 
freezing does not injure it for any purpose for which it may 
be used; therefore it is always safe and beneficial to cool 
milk to a low temperature. We cannot, however, steriUze 
milk without impairing or destroying its usefulness for many 
purposes; consequently this method of preserving milk 
is not practical on the farm. It is wise though for the farmer 
to steriHze the skim milk fed to calves, as neither its palata- 
bleness or feed value are impaired by the process; and it 
will remain sweet for a much longer time. While it is useful 
to know how to retard the development of many forms 
of bacterial fife in milk, it is not nearly so important as it 
is to learn how to prevent their presence. Scientists tell us 
that milk in the udder of a healthy cow is free from germ 
life. It follows, therefore, that the milk is inoculated with 
these organisms after or during the process of drawing it 
from the udder. It is of paramount importance, then, that 
the dairyman famiharize himself with the causes of contam- 
ination, that he may successfully combat them. 

CLEANLINESS. 

Every dairyman knows, or should know, that cleanliness 

is a cardinal factor in the milk business. He may realize 

this, however, and yet fail to give to it the importance it 

merits. Conditions, as they are found to exist by an 



126 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen, 

inspection of the different dairies in a community, prove 
beyond question that all dairymen do not attach the same 
degree of importance to this subject. One dairy and its 
surroundings will be found to be the embodiment of neatness 
and order, while another will convey the impression that the 
word cleanliness cannot be found in that dairyman's vocab- 
ulary. The accumulation of dirt in the cowbarn, on the 
bodies of the cows, or in the place where milk is kept, are 
all prolific sources of infection. Another, and perhaps the 
most fruitful source of germ production, is the use of 
improperly cleaned milk cans and pails. A professor in one 
of our dairy schools says: " While vessels in which milk is 
received and is stored, may be clean so far as the visible 
dirt is concerned, by far the greater majority of dairymen 
do not clean their dairy utensils so that the bacterial germs 
are entirely gotten rid of. Consequently, when milk is 
milked into such pails, the germ life that adheres to the 
walls and is inclosed in the cracks and joints of the pail 
find in this warm, rich, nutritive food medium the very 
best conditions for growth. 

HOW TO CLEAN CANS. 

The cans, pails, dippers, in short every utensil that 
comes in contact with the milk, should not only be thor- 
oughly washed, but they should be immersed in boiling 
water for several minutes. The seams and joints in all 
utensils used should be filled with solder plumb with the 
surface of the vessel, as these small receptacles form excellent 
breeding places for all kinds of germs. 

To many these precautions may seem unnecessary, but 
they are not; for analysis has shown that milk put into cans 
that have been treated in this manner, contains a much 
smaller number of bacteria per cubic centimeter than does 
milk from the same lot put into cans washed in the usual 



Care 0/ Mtlk. 127 

way: and it will remain sweet from six to twelve hours 
longer. In many communities the same cans in which milk 
is taken to the factory are used in carrying home sour milk 
and whey. While this is a custom that should not be 
encouraged, it cannot always be avoided; but when practiced 
it is doubly important that the cans should be thoroughly 
boiled before they are again used for milk. Milk is often 
taken to the factory in cans covered with a green coating 
inside of the neck and along the seams; such cans are alive 
with destructive organisms; and to have them in such a 
condition shows unpardonable neglect. Milk put into such 
a receptacle cannot retain its purity for a single moment; 
besides, its mixing at the factory with other milk is sure to 
infect the whole lot, often resulting in much inconvenience 
and pecuniary loss. 

Where the cans are taken home empty, it is advisable 
to wash them at the factory where steam can be used in 
sterilizing them. It should not be necessary for the creamery 
management to employ an extra man to do this work; a wash 
box and steam jet can be provided, and the farmers permitted 
to wash their own cans. When this is done, the cans should 
be closely covered with a canvass to keep out the dirt while 
returning from the factory. 

It is wise to adopt this system when it is possible to do 
so, as it insures a uniform method of cleaning all the cans 
in which milk is brought to the factory. A little tact may 
be necessary on the part of the creamery foreman in seeing 
that the work is rightly done; but the improved condition 
of the milk he receives will amply repay him for any extra 
labor this may occasion. 

Pails made of wood should never be used in which to 
hold milk, as it is impossible to keep them clean and pure. 
Always use a galvanized or tin pail, and observe the same 
care in keeping it clean that you do with the cans. When 



128 Common Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

pouring milk from the pails into the cans run it through a 
metal gauze and cloth strainer. The milk should not be 
allowed to stand in the barn or cow stable for any length of 
time. While it is true that milk will not be affected by 
odors so long as its temperature is higher than that of the 
surrounding atmosphere, the same is not true of germs. 
Therefore it is necessary to remove the milk at once to a 
place where the atmosphere is pure and the surroundings 
clean and free from flying dust. 

AVOID DUST. 

Dust and bacterial life are inseparably connected. 
Therefore dusty or mouldy hay or straw should never be 
used in bedding cows; neither should dirt be allowed to 
accumulate in or about the stables, as it furnishes a breeding 
place for all sorts of germs. When disturbed this dirt floats 
in the air in the form of dust, which settles into the milk 
cans and pails carrying innumerable germs with it. To note 
how thoroughly impregnated is the air with dust, even when 
special care has been taken to have all the surroundings 
clean and pure, it is but necessary to stand at right angles 
with a ray of sunlight as it streams through a crack or a 
crevice, and notice the innumerable minute particles of dust 
as they float through the ray of light. When we consider 
that each of these atoms is the abiding place of numerous 
organisms, we are impressed by a more thorough realization 
of the difficulties that stand in the way of complete immu- 
nity from germ infection. . This knowledge emphasizes the 
necessity for taking every precaution within our power that 
we may reduce to a minimum the presence of germ life. As 
dust-particles are the transporting mediums of all kinds of 
germs, it reasonably follows that whatever tends to free the 
air from dust, reduces in like proportion the dangers from 
bacterial infection . A proper appreciation of the unfavorable 



Care of 31 ilk. • 129 

conditions attributable to the presence of germ life in milk , 
will prompt the thrifty dairyman to keep his cow barn as 
free from dust as possible. A damp surface is one of the 
most effectual preventives. If in summer the cows are only 
stabled during milking hours night and morning, it is wise 
to wet down the stable floor with a hose or sprinkler before 
turning the cows in. It may be difficult to do this during 
the season when the cows are kept constantly in the barn, 
but then the ceiling, walls and floor should be swept often 
with the broom, and an occasional coat of whitewash should 
be given to the walls. The manure should never be piled 
close to the barn, but should be drawn at once onto the land 
or deposited a considerable distance from the stable. The 
cows should not be fed hay or be bedded just previous 
to milking, as this tends to create a dust in the air. Neither 
should they be milked immediately after being put into the 
barn, as their tramping on the floor causes a great deal of 
dust .to rise. In short, whatever tends to impregnate the 
air with dust should be avoided as far as possible. We wish 
to impress upon the farmer's mind the fact that this is one 
of the most prolific sources of contamination. When he 
realizes this he knows a cause, and it is for him to employ such 
means for its removal as good judgment and circumstances 
may dictate. 

KEEP THE COWS CLEAN. 

Myriads of germs find a lodgement in the coat and on 
the skin of the cow. In wading through stagnant water 
or soft, marshy soil, the animal comes in contact with germs 
of all sorts, which find a lodgment in the coat, on the udder 
and on the under parts of the body. When the surface 
becomes dry the dirt is easily dislodged, and if the cow is 
milked while in this condition, germ-laden dirt is being 
constantlv sifted into the milk. This can be corrected to a 



130 Common- Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

considerable degree by washing the udder, the teats and 
flanks, before milking. It is well to dampen these parts, 
even when no dirt is visible; as by so doing the displacement 
of minute particles, always present in the coat and on the 
skin of the cow, will be avoided. It is erroneous to believe 
this precaution unnecessar}^ because the strainer removes all 
particles of dirt. Remember germs are not a part of the dirt 
particles, but merely find a lodgement upon them. When 
these particles are deposited in the pail during the process of 
milking, the germs at once leave them to mingle and multiply 
in the more nutritive element, and no strainer can remove 
them. The only safe and sure way to avoid germ infection 
is to prevent as far as possible their getting into the milk. 
The real importance of preventing hairs and dust from the 
cow's body from getting into the milk is- not generally 
realized by the farmer. Hence he is inclined to look upon 
the precautions recommended as visionary, and to attempt 
to put them into practice as so much time and labor thrown 
away. The result of the following experiments made by 
Prof. Russell of the Wisconsin experiment station, clearly 
demonstrates, however, that all these precautions are well 
worthy the farmer's most careful consideration. Prof. 
Russell says: "Experience has taught many dairymen 
that thoroughly washing the udder of the cow is of value 
in keeping the milk pure and clean. This process is to be 
thoroughl}- commended and the application of warm water 
to the udder and to the under parts and flanks of the cow, 
is a most effectual means of preventing the dislodgement of 
bacteria in the hair. We cannot prevent entirely the hairs 
from being rubbed off, but actual experiment shows that the 
number of germs may be greatly diminished. We have 
experimented on this point in order to determine just 
exactl}^ what influence was to be noted when milk was 
received in these two ways. Covered glass dishes containing 



Care of Milk. 



131 



a thin laj-er of gelatine, were exposed for sixty seconds 
underneath the cow during milking, and then protected so 
that the germs which were deposited on the moist surfaces 
developed into little patches that were visible to the eye. 
By actual count the number of germs was determined, and 
the result was as follows: Under a cow with a thoroughh- 
washed udder and bell}', five hundred germs per minute 
would fall into a ten-inch pail. Under ordinary conditions, 




INKA, 6th 

Three-year-old record, 72 pounds of milk a day; 'JO pounds of butter in 7 days. 

Four-year-old record, IS, 197 pounds of milk in nine months. 

Owned by S. N. Wrig-ht. Elg-in HI. 

the cultures revealed the presence of seventeen hundred per 
minute as deposited. Taking the average length of a milk- 
ing as five minutes, there were in this instance two thousand 
eight hundred organisms introduced when precautionary- 
measures were used, against eight thousand five hundred 
under ordinary conditions. 

Of course this number is not constant and would var\- 
greatly, depending on many conditions, but there can be no 
doubt but that the actual number of germs may be dimin- 
ished from one-half to two-thirds by the exercise of this 
simple precaution." 



132 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

GERMS IN THE FORE MILK. 

However pains-taking a milker may be, it is impossible 
to extract all the milk from the udder; a small quantity is 
sure to be left in the lower part of the milk ducts. The 
danger of contamination from this source is clearl)- explained 
by Prof. Russell in the following paragraph: 

' ' We have in the lower end of the milk duct a veritable 
incubator, in which the bacteria have the best possible 
conditions for growth. There is warmth, food and moisture, 
so that they increase greatly, and are in a rapidly developing 
condition at the time of the next milking. When the cow 
is next milked these bacterial masses are milked into the 
pail and consequently infect the whole milking. These 
forms being in a rapidly growing condition, on account of 
their excellent surroundings, are able to increase much 
faster than those germs which gain access in a resting or 
spore condition; such as those from hay or straw. The 
milking of the first few streams from the teat washes out a 
great majority of them." 

This being true, it is not good policy to milk the first 
two or three streams into the pail into which the whole milk 
of the cow is to be drawn. To pursue this course will 
cause but little waste in the quantity of milk, and it will 
materially improve its quality. 

COOLING MILK. 

it has already been mentioned that cooling milk retards 
the development of bacterial life. The degree of tempera- 
ture to which it is necessary to cool milk, depends very 
much upon when and for what purpose it is to be used 
Milk for shipping usually requires a lower temperature 
than does milk that is taken to the creamery. The reason 
for ^this is obvious. Milk that is shipped is required to 
retain its quality until it is consumed, which may necessitate 



Care of Milk. 133 

its remaining sweet from sixty to seventy-two hours ; while 
milk delivered at the factor}' is usually made into cheese at 
•once, or the cream is separated from it and is made into 
l3Utter within twenty-four hours from the time the milk is 
■drawn from the cow. In the former case it should be cooled 
to a temperature below the germinating point of the organisms 
it may contain. All bacterial forms that are introduced 
into milk, through the several mediums referred to in this 
chapter, excepting those in the fore milk, are in a state of 
suspended growth or the spore stage. If milk is cooled to 
a temperature of for ty to forty-five degrees it is below the 
germinating point, and the development of the spore into 
living organisms is almost suspended; and if held at this 
low temperature, the milk will remain sweet for a consider- 
able length of time. Of course in time it will become sour, 
even at this low temperature; as all the germs introduced at 
the time of milking are not held at the rest or spore stage 
until the cooling of the milk is affected, consequent!}' their 
development will eventually produce a sour condition. In 
cooling milk fcir delivery at the creamer}- or cheese factory, 
a temperature of sixty degrees is usually found satisfactory, 
as germ development is sufficiently retarded at this tempe- 
rature to admit of the milk being made into cheese or butter 
before any unfavorable conditions result. 

To cool milk, the cans should be placed as soon as filled 
in a tank filled with fresh cold water, up to the necks of the 
cans. If possible, a continuous influx and outflow of water 
should be maintained until the required temperature is 
reached. Of course if as low a temperature as forty 
degrees is required, ice will have to be used; but for factory 
delivery water will answer every purpose. 

The milk should be aerated while cooling, for the 
purpose of throwing off bad odors, and also to insure a 
uniform temperature of all the milk in the can . Care should 



134 Cotntnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

be taken in aerating milk that it be not stirred too roughly 
nor too long; as there is danger of churning the milk until 
small granules of butter are formed. This will not occur, 
however, if proper care is observed in performing the 
work. 

A very convenient stirrer can be made by soldering a 
piece of heav}^ tin, about three inches in diameter, to the 
end of a three-sixteenth inch wire; soldering the ware to the 
Center of the plate, and at right angles with it, after the 
manner of the old fashioned churn dasher. Cut the ware of 
sufficient length so that when standing on the bottom of the 
can it will extend about six inches above the ^top. Curve 
the upper end of the wire into a ring sufficiently large 
to admit two fingers, and j-ou have an ideal stirrer. 
It is well to have a number of these stirrers; one for each 
can. When the milk is placed in the water tank drop the 
stirrers into the cans, w^hen''it will be found both easy and 
expeditious to pass from can to can, giving each a short 
agitation before proceeding to the next. 

KEEP THE TANK CLEAN. 

It is imperative that the tank in which the milk is 
cooled be kept clean. Never allow the water to stand in the 
tank after the milk has been removed from it. It takes 
water but a short time, especially in summer, to become 
stagnant and bad smelling. These offensive odors will enter 
the milk as soon as its temperature is the same, or falls 
below that of the surrounding atmosphere, detracting much 
from its purity. 

Slime should not be allowed to collect on the sides and 
bottom of the tank. In emptying the tank a conveyor 
should be used that the water may be carried away a consid- 
erable distance. If the surroundings will permit its 
construction an underground drain is to be preferred. Stale 



Care of Milk. 135 

water should never be allowed to collect, nor sink into the 

ground near the cooling tank; as such conditions provide 

fertile fields for the germination of objectionable organisms. 
A FEW don'TS. 

Don't think because the weather is cold in winter the milk 
will not require cooling; it should be given the same 
care that it receives during the hot season. 

Don't leave your milk standing in the cow stable or horse 
barn in winter, believing that as the weather is cold 
it will do no harm. This is a mistake, as it will be 
sure to become infected with germs and foul odors if 
so left. The butter and cheese maker often has 
more difficulty with milk in winter than he does in 
the summer because of this practice on the part of 
his patrons. 

Don't put the covers on your cans, neither in the winter nor 
the summer, until the milk is cooled to the required 
temperature; and not then unless you are going to 
take it at onqe to the factory. 

Don't mix the night's and morning's milk until the latter 
hasbeenthoroughl}^ cooled. This is sometimes done 
to avoid the trouble and time necessar}^ for cooling 
the morning's milk. Such a practice should never 
be followed. The experienced cheese and butter 
maker would much rather receive your milk without 
its being cooled at all than in this condition; as 
mixing milk in this manner often results in off -grade 
butter and cheese. 

Don't leave the milk wagon canvas, nor the frock you wear 
while milking, in the cow stable or horse barn. When 
not in use, hang them in a place where the atmosphere 
is pure, that they may not become contaminated with 
germs and barn-3'ard odors to be subsequently con- 
vej^ed to the milk. 



136 Coinmon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

Don't milk the cows after you have cleaned the stables, 
curried the horses or cleaned the horse barn, until 
you have washed your hands, cleaned your feet and 
brushed your clothes; as milk is often infected by 
germs conveyed from the person of the milker. 

Don't put anything into the milk to keep it from souring, 
as any substance sufficiently powerful to retard germ 
development is necessarily injurious to health. 
Thorough aerating and cooling are the only preven- 
tives required. Always fill the cans to the neck, as 
this will prevent the milk from churning while being 
conveyed to the factory or station. 

IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT FACTORS. 

A brief reference to the relative importance of the 
several factors considered in this chapter may not be 
amiss. 

First in importance is contamination from milk vessels. 
More milk is rendered impure from being handled and stored 
in unclean vessels than from any other cause. Hence the 
urgent necessity for thorough cleanliness in this regard 
cannot be too emphatically presented. This is a factor 
wholly under the control of the milk producer, consequently 
its unfavorable influence can and should be entirely removed. 
Farmers should recognize its importance by exercising the 
greatest care in the cleaning of all utensils that come in 
contact with the milk. 

The second factor in importance, so far as its contam- 
inating influence is concerned, is cleanliness in milking. 
This factor, like the first, is almost if not altogether under 
the control of the milker. Keep the udder and under part 
of the body of the cow clean and dampened when milking. 
Do the work with clean hands and in clean clothes, and all 
danger of infecting the milk is arrested or greatly min- 
imized , 



Care of Milk. 137 

The third factor in importance is perhaps the germs in 
the fore milk. This condition is not wholly under the 
control of the milker, and consequently is more difficult to 
regulate. However, by rejecting a small quantity of the 
first milk drawn from the udder, the danger of contamination 
from this source is greatly lessened. 

The remaining factors of dust and odors in the cow 
barn can be largel}^ controlled if not wholly removed. 

WILL IT PAY ? 

It will not be denied that to properly attend to all these 
details involves considerable labor and time. The question 
to determine then is, does it render the milk enough better 
to make up for this extra time? An affirmative answer can 
only be given in reply to this question. It not only pays, 
but if the best results obtainable in the manufacture of 
dairy products are realized, it becomes absolutely imperative. 
"Pure milk is as necessary to the production of high- 
grade dairy goods as is perfect seed to the bountiful growth 
of corn or clover, Like begets like is clearly exemplified 
in an analysis of milk and its products; hence the necessity 
of having pure milk. 

High grade goods not only insure high prices but they 
create an increased demand. Then it logically follows that 
whatever contributes toward the establishment of these two 
conditions is beneficial to the producer. "But," says a 
dairyman, " What good does it accomplish for me to care 
for my milk while other patrons of the same factory are 
indifferent as to the condition of theirs ?" At first thought 
it is admitted the benefits resulting appear remote, when 
these conditions exist, but in truth they are not. Do your 
own work well, then you have a right to insist that others 
associated with you in such a manner as to affect the benefits 
resulting from your endeavor, do the same. Nevertheless, 



138 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

however this may be, the question might be asked with equal 
propriety; why should one man do right when so many do 
wrong? or, why should one conform to the rules of health 
when so many violate them ? It is not so much a question 
of general results as it is one of individual achievement,, 
and no loss was ever incurred from the right performance of 
anv labor. 



CHapter O. 

Buttcrmakers and Bttttermaking. 

Few if any industries have made such marked advance- 
ment, during the last twenty-five years, as butter-making. 
In fact butter production did not rise to the dignity of an 
industry that long ago. At that time it was a mere incident 
in farm life. The average farmer did not look for an 
increase of revenue from this source, consequentl}' but little 
attention was given, either to the kind of cows kept on the 
farm, or the amount or qualit}' of butter made. The chief 
object sought was to secure a sufficient quantity for home 
consumption, exchanging the surplus, if any, for com- 
modities at the nearest grocery store. The result of these 
prevailing conditions was to throttle au}^ desire for 
improvement. Few, if any, farmers cared to break away 
from the chaotic conditions with which they had become 
accustomed, and try to introduce new and improved 
methods in butter-making. As a result the same monotonous 
routine was carried out from year to year, and from 
generation to generation. The daughter made butter just 
as her mother and her grandmother made it, and was 
as jealous of the peculiar system she had inherited as she 
was of her religious faith. She did so and so because her 
mother did so; and any deviation from the maternal 
instructions would have been considered sacrilege. In 
consequence of this devotion to time-honored methods, the 
qualit}' of butter produced was as varied as were the profiles 
of [the makers. There was one point, however, on which 
there seemed to be a universal agreement; and that was a 

[139] 



140 Cotnmon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

total disregard for conditions. The chief object appeared 

to be to gather the cream in the least troublesome waj- 

possible, and at irregular intervals, churn it into butter. It 

would have seemed a grave departure from time-honored 

customs, to have postponed an}- other work to look after 

the butter. The time that could be rightfully devoted to 

this purpose, was considered to be the brief intervals 

between other lines of labor; and if for any reason these 

intervals did not occur the cream or butter was neglected 

until they did The effect of temperature on final results 

was not even dreamed of, and to use a thermometer in 

connection with butter-making would have been considered 

an acknowledgment of uncertainty and ignorance that could 

not be tolerated. When churning day arrived, as it was 

sure to in the course of ever-changing events, it was a time 

of unusual activity in the average household. The old 

barrel churn was brought out, the cream dumped into it, 

and the magic transformation into butter was at once 

entered upon. Often it was no idle undertaking, as the 

cream was sometimes stubborn and refused to yield to the 

seductive influence of prolonged agitation. When this 

occurred each member of the household took a turn at the 

dasher, and frequently when the transformation had not 

been consummated by evening, the assistance of the hired 

man was enlisted during the interval between chore-doing^ 

and bed time. It was not at all uncommon for the process 

to extend over to the next day before the butter appeared ^ 

and the united efforts of the family were crowned with 

success. This protracted labor however was not always 

necessary, there being occasions when a few strokes of the 

dasher brought results that at other times hours were 

required to accomplish. These instances were occasions for 

congratulation and favorable comment; but it is not recorded 

that the causes for these vast differences in the time required 



Butlennakers and Butter)iiakin<r. 



141 



to do a churning were ever understood or sought after. 
The}' seem to have been looked upon as inevitable condi- 
tions that should be met without mtirmur or complaint. 



r 




hi 



< ^ 



The thrifty housewife never dreamed that a slight change of 
method might bring improvement; but was resigned to 
conditions as she found them. As little attention was paid 



142 Common Sense Ideas forDairynien. 

to the kind of cows kept, and how they were fed and cared 
for, as was to the subsequent details of butter-making. 
Nearly all the details of cow-management were left to the 
animals themselves and to the dog. To the latter was 
usually assigned the duty of escorting the herd to and from 
the pasture; and he was generally permitted to employ such 
methods in accomplishing this work as appeared to him best 
suited to the purpose. As a result of his training the cows 
often developed better qualities as sprinters than they did 
as milkers. In winter they were often housed beneath the 
broad canopy of the skies, with perhaps a strawstack for 
shelter from the storm. They were kindly permitted to 
pick a large portion of their living from the surrounding 
fields, even in the coldest weather; and were generally as 
unaccustomed to comfortable quarters in a barn or stable 
as the polar bear. The season of the year at which they 
freshened was seldom regulated by the farmer; but, like all 
the other details of his dairy work, was left to chance. As 
a result, the cows came in at all times; and it was not 
unusual to have a fresh milker every inonth in the year. 
Breed or natural adaptation to dairy work, was not consid- 
ered in selecting cows by the general run of farmers; and 
the man who showed an inclination to give some attention 
to this subject was looked upon by many as a dreamer who 
in pursuit of an idle fancy was becoming neglectful of the 
necessary duties of farm life. The quality of butter that 
was produced under these conditions can be better imagined 
than explained. lyittle was known in relation to the several 
qualities of excellence an expert judgment requires butter 
to possess. About all the knowledge possessed or required 
seemed to be an ability to understand that, whereas it once 
was cream now it is butter; but what kind of butter was 
not a matter under consideration. Of course it was believed 
to be good b}' the maker, and was acknowledged to be so, 



Bultermakers and Butleruiaking. 



143 



after a time, at least, by those who were brought into dail>' 
contact with it. What at first perhaps was accepted with 
heroic endurance was through the influence of constant 
famiharity accepted with a reHsh. That it possessed many 




quahties that would at this day be looked upon as excellent 
is extremely doubtful. It was never uniform in any 
particular, as it was seldom made twice under the same 



144 



Coinvion-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



conditions. The importance of grain, flavor, color, etc., 
was little understood. Butter that was at all palatable was 
designated by the general term ' ' good butter' ' ; while the 
rancid and odorous specimens were denominated ' ' bad 
butter." It was put up in all forms and in no forms. The 
country merchant, with much sorrow and anguish of spirit, 
received daily his regular allotment of prints, rolls and jars, 
for which he gave in exchange the various commodities of 
life. These dail}' receipts, the product of one communit3% 
when viewed collectivel}^ often presented a unique appear- 
ance. The different parcels would be kaleidoscopic in form 
and color, and equall}' unlike in flavor, representing the 
different methods employed in production. From this 
heterogeneous mass the public was compelled to draw its 
supply. To purchase the commodity was to indulge in a 
game of chance, where the blanks far exceeded in number 
the prizes. There was no particular flavor demanded by the 
purchaser; if on trial he found he could eat it, no higher 
degree of excellence was expected 
or required. Protracted use of a 
certain brand of any commodity 
creates a taste for that specific 
article; and if this taste is acquired 
by a majority of the people, a 
public demand is created for it. 
In order to meet this demand the 
trade requires the goods it handles 
to possess the peculiar qualities 
that the public requires. In this 
way grades are established and a 
series of prices corresponding to the 
FARM SEPARATOR scvcral gradcs. In the butter 
icut furnished by Vermont market thcse grades are known as 

Farm Machine Co., BeUows r^ i 

Fans, vt. extras, firsts, seconds, etc. Goods 




BvHermakcrs and Buttei making. 145 

possessing the qualities that meet the greatest 
pubhc favor are graded the highest, those next in favor are 
graded a httle lower, and so on down until rejected qualities 
are reached. It will be seen therefore that public taste 
creates public demand, and public demand establishes grade. 
These two extremes are dependent upon each other ; therefore 
if no public taste exists no grade can be established. This 
was the condition under the primitive system of buttermak- 
ing in vogue a quarter of a century ago. There being no 
uniformity of method emploj'ed in the production of butter 
the quality was constantly varying; scarcely ever being 
twice alike. This lack of uniformit}^ precluded the possi- 
bility of a public taste being acquired; consequently a series 
of grades could not be established. The country merchant 
therefore was compelled to smother his wrath and pay a 
uniform price for all qualities offered. To have done 
otherwise would have been suicidal; his business existence 
depended on it. His patrons were his neighbors, and 
neighbors to each other; and for him to discriminate in favor 
of one and against another would have been to invite finan- 
cial ruin. No matter how much superior Mrs. A.'s butter 
may have been to Mrs. B.'s, both must be paid the same 
price or a social upheaval would have been created termina- 
ting in social ostracism and business failure for the merchant. 
The best he could do, therefore, was to pay one price to all, 
and fervently wish for the day when variegated and ill- 
flavored butter would cease to be a legal-tender for good sugar, 
tea and tobacco. Country merchants disposed of the butter 
thus received to city dealers, and by them the public was 
supplied. The uncertain quality of nearly all butter on the 
market tended to curtail demand and diminish consumption. 
The result was over-supply and low prices. Even compara- 
tively good butter, if placed on the general market, brought 
such low prices as to destroy all incentive for its production. 



146 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

Ivike Old Dog Tray, it was often judged by the company it 
kept and made to suffer for their short-comings. The man 
who wished to profit from a production of good butter, was 
compelled to make special contract for its sale, and even 
then the extremely low prices prevailing for the general 
supply tended to bring the prices he received for his butter 
far below its real value. The prevailing over-stocked condi- 
condition of the market was often interpreted by the 
producer as indicating that too much butter was being made; 
therefore, instead of seeking to improve upon prevailing 
methods of manufacture, he often disposed of his cows and 
abandoned dairy pursuits. Thus for years was the dairy 
industr}^ of this countrj^ carried on without either thought 
or method. Farmers failed to understand that it was qualit)^ 
rather than quantity that limited demand. They failed to 
comprehend the truth that the public would consume one 
pound of high-grade butter, if it could be procured, for 
every ounce consumed under existing conditions. Hence, 
dairying at best was considered by- the average farmer to be 
an industry of minor importance; and the most sanguine 
minded failed to realize its capability as a wealth-producer. 
A few there were, however, who caught a glimpse at least of 
what might be accomplished by right thought and well- 
directed effort. These few came up out of the slough of 
despond and made a start on the highway of progress. 
They made a diligent search after better conditions and 
improved methods. They began to study the laws of cause 
and effect, and to apply the knowledge this study 
revealed to them. They grasped the fact that the butter 
then produced was not eaten because it was not fit to eat; 
and that the price for which it was sold was low, because its 
value was low. They conceived the idea that, if the people 
were provided with a superior article, and asstned that it 
always could be found when wanted, they would consume 



Buttermakers and Buttermaking, 147 

many times the quantity then being used, and would 
wilhngly pa}' better prices for it. This was a vakiable 
revelation; it shifted the entire responsibilit}- for unprofitable 
dairying from consumer to producer. It plainly- said to the 
farmer, learn how to conduct your business, change j'our 
methods, and you will be rewarded according to your merit. 
The result was, he began to look about him to learn the 
cause of his failure. He thought over the methods he was 
employing in his work, and the more he thought the plainer 
it was revealed to him that his whole S3'stem was a failure. 
This man was reformed. The scales had fallen from his 
eyes and the new light had broken in upon his intellect. He 
had found the key to the door of progress, and he now 
stood at the beginning of the highway of improvement. In 
struggling up from chaos toward perfection, the dairyman 
had to confront many difficulties; difficulties from without 
and difficulties from within. He had to learn how to 
improve upon himself as well as upon, his methods. He was 
forced to a realization of the truth that thought must 
precede action; and that no detail was so trivial as to be 
unworthy of notice. He learned the essential lesson that 
butter-making does not begin at the churn, but many 
important factors enter into its production before it reaches 
that stage. He also found that each one of these factors 
had a more or less important effect upon final results; and 
that to overlook or neglect any one of them was prejudicial 
to success. In his search for causes he found that right 
butter-making begins with the cow, and ends with the 
package in which it reaches the consumer; all intervening 
factors so interlapping that none can beneglected or left out. 
Fortified by this newly acquired knowledge, he entered upon 
progressive dairy work by first improving the quahty of his 
cows. Then the question of feed was given attention; the 
effects of different food elements on butter production were 



148 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



carefully noted, and those giving the more satisfactory 
results were used. The care given to stock, never before 
considered, was also found to be a factor of much importance. 




Thus, step by step, the dairy industry grew; the imperfec- 
tions that marked its early history vanished before the 
onward march of improved thought and method, until the 



Buttermakers and Biitterniaking. 149 

present high stage of development was attained. The end, 
however, has not yet been reached; vast possibihties still 
stretch out before the American dairyman. While he has 
accomplished much in the past, great opportunities still 
await him. The same intelligent devotion that has led his 
chosen industry up from the chaotic conditions of the past, 
to its present advanced stage of improvement, will still point 
out the way to greater achievements in the future. A con- 
templation of what has been accomplished provides ample 
incentive for future exertion. Let us then draw a brief 
comparison between old and new methods. The prime factor 
in modern dair3'ing is thought. Thought must precede 
action in any pursuit, if success would be attained. 
Thought, theil, may be justly considered the first distin- 
guishing feature between past and present methods of butter 
making. The old time butter-maker did not think toward 
expression; the modern butter-maker does. The one 
performed his work without regard to conflicting conditions; 
the other regulates everj- detail in accordance with scientific 
truth. With the first all milk and cream was handled in the 
same way from month to month and from year to year; the 
other has learned that this cannot be done successfully. He 
knows that the milk from the same cows is subject to man}- 
changes; that cream from the milk of cows far along in 
lactation cannot be handled the same as the cream from fresh 
milkers and similar results be obtained. The old-time 
butter-maker knew nothing of bacterial life, or its influence 
upon milk and cream; his cream was gathered from milk 
infected with various germs, and set at various temperatures. 
It was held until a prescribed quantity had been collected 
before it was churned; without regard to the stage of devel- 
opment reached. The modern butter maker does not do 
this; he has learned the secret of germ infection and the 
results attending it. This knowledge has broadened his 



150 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

conception and brought to light other facts. It has taught 
him the importance of keeping milk pure and free from 
contamination; the influence of temperature on germ 
development is also understood by him, and so regulated 
as to bring satisfactory results; the finer points of flavor, 
grain, etc., were quite unknown to the butter maker of the 
past. His modern successor, however, realizes that these 
are prime qualities, consequently his aim is to so regulate 
conditions as to insure their presence in the butter he produ- 
ces. To do this he must possess a knowledge of the many 
details leading up to the desired result, and just how to 
regulate and apply them. The butter maker of long ago 
was an unskilled laborer; he brought into exercise no higher 
talent in handling milk and cream, and transforming the 
same into butter, than he did in digging a post-hole. What 
are today recognizd as the more important factors entering 
into the production of high-grade butter were wholly 
unknown to him; and the result of his achievements usually 
corresponded with his want of knowledge. All this has 
changed, however. The butter maker of today must be a 
skilled artisan; able to bring an expert judgment to bear 
upon every detail of his work. He must not only know a 
certain condition exists, but he should be able to tell why it 
exists and know how to regulate and control it. This 
superior knowledge is not gained in a day, or even in a year 
but is the result of diligent study and more or less extended 
experience. The successful butter-maker of toda}^ can 
neither jump at conclusions, nor guess at results. The 
methods he employs in his work must be founded on previ- 
viously ascertained facts; and each successive step made to 
conform to conditions fully recognized and understood. 
This involves a knowledge of causes and effects in so far as 
it pertains to milk and its butter product. To be full master 
of the situation his labors must not begin in the butter 



Butterniakers and Buttermaking. 151 

room; to do so would be like beginning in the middle of a 
book to read, with the hope of understanding its contents. 
The ideas gained by such reading would necessarily be 
incomplete. So the butter-maker, to possess a full compre- 
hension of his work, must extend his knowledge to the 
herds of his patrons, and learn the conditions existing 
there; ascertain what kind of cows are kept, the stage of 
lactation reached, the care given to the herds, the quality 
and kind of feed they eat and the qualit}^ of water they 
drink. He should know more; he should have a knowledge 
of how each farmer cares for his milk; the condition of the 
barn or stable in which the milking is done, and the atten- 
tion given to cleanliness in the care of cans, pails and other 
utensils, liable to come in contact with the milk. He should 
further ascertain how each patron cools his milk; know when 
and where it is done, and to what temperature it is brought. 
With this knowledge in his possession, he is prepared to 
take the milk when it is delivered to him at the creamer5% 
and continue the work of preparing it for the production of 
butter according to methods suited to its condition; he does 
not have to presume or guess at anything. Some may 
suppose it impossible for a butter-maker to gain all this 
knowledge in regard to the methods pursued by his patrons, 
without appearing over-officious, and therefore becoming 
obnoxious to them. Such, however, is not the case. The 
real butter-maker, the one who has the true qualifications, 
the intelligence and energy necessary to bring success, will 
find no difficulty in gaining all of this knowledge he requires. 
Of course if he assumes an air of superiority in his inter- 
course with his patrons, and tries to gain knowledge as an 
army would storm a fortress, he will no doubt meet with a 
resistance that will tend to cool his ardor, and dampen his 
ambition; but if he seeks information as one desiring to 
learn, his efforts will create no resentment, but on the 



152 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairytnen. 

contrary will be encouraged. Patrons, as a general thing, 
are pleased to have the creamery manager show an interest 
in their work, and are not disposed to take offense at any 
reasonable inquiries he may make. As a class, the patrons 
of a creamery realize that their interests and those of the 
butter-maker are identical; and are usually ready and 
willing to assist him in any way possible. They know their 
success largely depends upon his success; and if his butter is 
off grade it will bring a lower price; and if prices are low 
dividends will be cut in proportion. All that is needed, 
therefore, is to convince the patron that his co-operation is 
a necessary factor in the production of good butter, and he 
will not onl}- listen to advice, but will show his willingness 
to modify his methods, if by so doing conditions can be 
improved. To be sure exceptions will be found; there are 
kickers and know-alls among farmers as well as men engaged 
in other lines of business; but fortunately they are largely 
in the minority and exert but httle influence. In dealing 
with such patrons the butter-maker should point out the 
defects in their milk and suggest remedies; then if his 
counsel is unheeded, it is his duty to himself, to the other 
patrons and to the creamery proprietor to reject his milk. 
There are instances when this is the only way a patron will 
receive instruction. In dealing with this kind of a man, 
the butter-maker should not be abusive, but firm; he should 
point out the necessity for making the changes he suggests, 
and when sure their importance is understood by the patron, 
insist on his complying with them. There is little danger 
of losing his patronage. If he knows your requests are 
just and reasonable, his judgment will finally get the better 
of his stubbornness and he will conform to the methods 
suggested. If he will not, it is better to lose than retain his 
patronage, for it is far more desirable that one patron should 



Buttermakers and Butterniakirtg. 153 

withdraw his milk than that the good quahties of the entire 
output of the creamery should be imperiled by receiving it. 

HOW TO DETECT POOR MILK. 

However watchful the butter-maker may be regarding 
the methods employed by his patrons in caring for their 
milk, it will not do for him to relax his vigilance on the 
weigh -stand. Impure milk is sure to be presented from time 
to time, and the only way to intercept it is by constant 
watchfulness. The question then is, how can it be detected? 
It is not a difficult matter to determine whether milk is sweet 
or sour. Anybody with the sense of taste unimpaired can 
detect sour milk; but there are other and far more objection- 
able conditions that are not so easily detected. The 
presence of these impurities is best detected by the peculiar 
odor given off by the milk; however, if the milk has been 
cooled to a low temperature these odors cannot be detected. 
Milk, especially in winter, is often kept where it takes on a 
multitude of objectionable flavors. These cannot be 
detected while the milk is cold. When it is suspected that 
a patron's milk is being exposed to infection, heat a sample, 
say half a pint, to a temperature of one hundred and five 
to one hundred and ten degrees, when any bad odor, if it is 
present, can readily be detected. It is often possible in this 
way to distinguish one objectionable odor from another, and 
to determine correctly the source of contamination. Too 
much care cannot be exercised in this direction: as a positive 
knowledge of the condition of the milk when received 
will greatly aid the butter-maker in determining what 
methods tb adopt in its subsequent handling. 

SEPARATING THE CREAM. 

Too little attention is often given to this branch of 
creamery work. The fact is not always recognized that the 
condition of the milk when run through the separator and 



154 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



the manner of feeding and running the machine, has a 
direct bearing upon the quaHty of butter produced. Expe- 
rienced butter-makers, however, recognize this truth, and 




give these matters careful attention. In cases where a large 
per centage of the milk received is from cows far advanced 
in the period of lactation , the fat globules are small , and a 



Buttermakers and Biitterrnaking. 155 

high speed and slow feed are necessary to do clean work; the 
temperature of the milk when it enters the machine should 
be higher when these conditions are present; eighty-eight or 
ninety degrees is not too high. In the earlier stages of 
lactation the globules are larger and separate more easih^ 
from the milk, consequently under these conditions a larger 
quantity of milk can be run through the machine in a given 
time, with satisfactory results. The cream can also be 
separated at a lower temperature, say at about eight}- or 
eighty-two degrees. The skim-milk should be often tested 
and if more than a trace of fat shows, in the tube of the test 
bottle, a change in the method of skimming should be made 
at once. If this condition is found; either the machines are 
being run at too low a speed, the feed is too heavy, or the 
milk is not heated to a high enough temperature.. Be careful 
not to run milk in with the cream. Right here is where the 
quality of butter may be affected by the method employed 
in running the separators. If run too slow, while a full feed 
is given, if the milk is too cold, or if the separators are so 
dirty that the milk tubes become clogged, a greater or less 
quantity of milk is likelj^ to run in with the cream. The 
effect of this is to produce unfavorable results in the butter, 
especially in hot weather. It is usually safer to run a heav}' 
cream, as this precludes the possibility for it to contain milk 
and renders the ripening more uniform. A thirty or thirtj-- 
two percent cream is none too heavy, especially in sunmier; 
it will ripen better, churn more readily and produce a better 
flavored butter. Butter produced from such cream will keep 
longer and better; also there will be a smaller loss in the 
buttermilk. A cream containing but eighteen or twenty per 
cent of fat often brings verj' unsatisfactory results; it is 
liable to become too sour, thus injuring the flavor of the 
butter, besides a greater amount of fat is left in the butter- 
milk, where the cream is so light. There is less danger of 



156 Conimon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

affecting the quality of the butter from running a hght 
cream in winter than there is in summer; the process of 
ripening is slower, consequently there is less danger of 
developing too much acid in the cream. Cream should be 
cooled as soon as it comes from the separator to a tempera- 
ture of about fifty-five degrees. This is very important, 
and a little neglect here ma}' greatly impair the flavor of 
the butter especially if the milk from which the cream is 
taken is at all tainted or bad flavored. Cream from milk in 
this condition should always be ripened at as low a tempera- 
ture as possible; as the development of bad flavors is 
greatly retarded by pursuing this course. This is a point 
worth remembering; as a very fair quality of butter is often 
obtained from badly tainted milk if this precaution is 
observed. Never cool cream by putting ice into it; if the 
water used does not lower the temperature to the point 
desired, put the ice into the water surrounding the cream, 
and stir the latter frequently while cooling, that a uniform 
temperature throughout the whole mass may be maintained. 

RIPENING THE CREAM. 

This is perhaps the most important factor in butter- 
making and the one most difficult to explain; as no method 
of procedure can be recommended, that will be found appli- 
cable to all conditions. On ripening cream properly, much 
depends upon the experience and judgement of the butter- 
maker. Methods that may bring the best results obtainable 
at one time, may be altogether unsatisfactory at another; 
therefore an understanding of all conditions present is 
necessary, before any particular system of ripening can be 
recommended. Here is where the best qualifications of the 
buttermaker are brought into requisition. A failure at this 
point in buttermaking can never be entirely remedied; the 
influence of impure milk, improper cooling, etc., may be at 
least partially corrected; but an error in ripening the cream, 



Buttermakers and Buttertnakin^. 157 

is sure to manifest itself in the impaired quality of the 
butter produced. The chief factor in good butter is the 
flavor. Other defects may be, to a certain extent, condoned 
or passed by; but a bad flavor never. It is by the proper 
ripening of cream more than anything else that good flavor 
is obtained; to be sure other factors exert an influence, but 
the flavor of butter, whether good or bad, is largeh* con- 
troled by the acidit}- of the cream at the time of churning. 
Acid, like charity, covers a multitude of sins. Therefore 
many of the defects resulting from impure milk, quality and 
kind of feed, stage of lactation, etc., can be covered up, or 
in other words neutralized, by the system practised in ripen- 
ing, and the degree of acid developed. If unfavorable 
forms are present in the milk, and consequently, are carried 
forward in the cream, a more rapid system of ripening 
should be adopted than is necessary when perfectl)^ normal 
conditions exist. The reason for this is by the introduction 
of favorable forms that produce lactic acid, the development 
of objectional organisms is neutralized; or to use a more 
familiar expression, we get ahead of the taint, and the 
desired flavor is obtained. To successfully accomplish this 
result it is desirable to ripen the cream ready for churning, 
within from twenty to twenty-four hours after it is separated 
from the milk. The use of a starter is often necessary to 
accomplish this result. In fact its use is imperative where 
the cream is tainted and bad flavored, as will readily be 
seen when the purpose for which it is introduced is under- 
stood. The reason for the cream being off flavor, is due to 
the presence in it of unfavorable organisms, which have far 
exceeded in number and rapidity of developement the 
favorable forms desired. The reason for putting in the 
starter is to inoculate the cream with these desired germs, 
and by aiding their development outstrip the growth of bad 
forms. To accompli >h this, we must be sure the starter used 



158 Co>n>non-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

contains the forms desired. It follows then, that great 
care must be observed in preparing 

THE vSTARTER. 

Never use sour cream taken from one churning to ripen 
the cream for the next; neither use the buttermilk for this 
purpose. By so doing, any unfavorable germs present in 
the cream or buttermilk are carried forward from one 
churning to another; and as these germs are constantly 
multiplying, the conditions will continue to grow worse 
instead of better. In preparing starter, select milk which 
experiment has shown to be free from objectionable taint or 
odor; heat this to a temperature of from ninety to ninet> -six 
degrees; then covering it closely, to avoid infection from 
any impurities that may be in the air, allow it to sour. 
This starter should be just clabbered when used; and in 
mixing it with the cream should be run through a fine sieve 
to insure the breaking up of all pieces of curd. Add enough 
to produce the required acidity in the time desired, say 
about twenty hours. A half a pint to a gallon of cream 
■ will generally be found a large enough quantity to produce 
this result. Of course the temperature at which the cream 
is held, will have much to do with the rapidity of its ripen- 
ing; but in cases where the cream is tainted, as has already 
been observed, it is advisable to ripen at as low a tempera- 
ture as possible, as the flavor of the butter is much im- 
proved by so doing. If half a pint of starter to each gallon 
of cream does not cause it to ripen fast enough, a little more 
may be added without working harm to the butter. In 
ripening cream that is tainted or off flavor, the following 
method of handling will in most instances bring good 
results: Cool the cream in the morning, as fast as it comes 
from the separators, to a temperature of about fifty degrees. 
If it is desired to churn it the next morning, as it should be 
if the cream is tainted, in the afternoon or evening add the 



Butterniakers and Buttermaking. 159 

starter, and raise the temperature to about seventy degrees, 
stirring the cream gently in the meantime. When the 
desired temperature is reached run the hot water from 
under the vat at once. After the acid begins to develope, 
the cream ma}' be cooled gradually b}' running cold water 
under it, until the desired temperature foi" churning is 
reached. Care must be taken that the cooling is done at 
the right time that the exact acidity required may be 
reached when the time for churning arrives These condi- 
tions can be properly adjusted in a very short time b}' an 
observant buttermaker. To. decide, however, by the sense 
of taste or smell alone, just when cream has attained the 
required degree of ripeness for churning is a prett}^ fine 
point; and in determining it the buttermaker should be 
aided if possible, b}' some mechanical means that will 
correctly show the degree of acid development. Prof. 
Mann's Acid Test, for testing the acidity of cream, is very 
reliable and its use is recommended. The sour or ripened 
condition of cream is due to the presence of a lactic ferment. 
After the cream has attained a certain degree of acidity 
the lactic fermentation ceases, and the putrefactive ferment- 
ation begins. In other words the cream commences to rot. 
If the cream is not churned before this fermentation begins 
the quality of the butter is much impaired; and the greater 
the degree of putrif active fermentation attained, the poorer 
the butter will be. It will be observed then how necessary 
it is to churn the cream when the exact acidity required 
has been developed. This is a delicate point, the determin- 
ation of which is greatly aided by the use of Mann's acid 
test. 

HOW TO USE THE TEST. 

The necessary apparatus consists of a burette, a burette 
stand, a pinch -cock and clamp. A pipette holding fifty 
cubic centimeters, a beaker glass, stirring rod and funnel. 



160 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



When making a test, stir the cream from which a sample is 
to be taken thoroughly, after which insert the small end 
of the pipette in the cream and draw until nearly full; then 
put the index finger over the upper end of the pipette, as in 




sampling milk, to exclude the air that the cream may not 
run out. Admit sufiicient air to allow the cream to escape 
slowly until the mark on the stem of the pipette is reached. 



Buttermakers atid Buttermaking. 161 

This will provide the required quantity (fifty centimeters) 
for making the test. Empty the cream from the pipette 
into a tumbler, then rinse the pipette two or three times 
with luke-warm water, to make sure all the cream is washed 
from the tube, and add the rinsings to the cream in the 
tumbler. Now add to the contents of the tumbler three 
drops of the solution marked "Indicator." You now fill the 
burette up to the mark indicated by "O" with the solution 
marked "Neutralizer." While constantly stirring the cream 
with the glass rod, allow the liquid to flow from the burrette 
into the tumbler, until the entire contents of the tumbler 
show a tinge of pink. Stop adding the solution from the 
burette the moment the color is permanent. Read the level 
of the liquid remaining in the burette which reading shows 
the degree of acid present in the cream. It has been found, 
when the usual normal conditions are present, that the 
acidity of the cream is right to secure the best results in 
yield and flavor of butter when from thirty-eight to forty- 
two cubic centimeters of the "Neutralizer" is required to 
make the test. It is, however, a simple matter for any 
butiermaker to determine by experience, the exact acidity 
suited to the best results, and with this as a standard, 
reduce the process of buttermaking to almost a certainty. 
By testing his cream in the afternoon he will be able to so 
gauge the temperature and amount of starter required, as to 
insure the right degree of acidity for churning the next 
morning. The solution marked "Neutralizer" is prepared 
of a certain strength, and should be kept securely corked. 
The whole outfit, including a two ounce bottle of "Indica- 
tor" solution, and one gallon of "Neutralizer", can be 
purchased for about five dollars. A small sum when the 
benefits resulting from its use are considered. 

WHEN TO CHURN. 

\^hen the milk received is badly tainted, or even in a 



162 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

doubtful condition, it is better to churn the cream every 
day; as by inoculating it with the desired germs by the 
addition of starter, the ripening process is hastened and the 
development of bad germs is diminished. On the other hand, 
if the cream is held for forty-eight hours, the ripening 
process must necessarily be slower; thereby affording more 
favorable conditions for objectional germs to develop 
and multiply. It is therefore generally advisable, especially 
during the hot season, to churn every day. During the 
winter months, if the cream is in good condition when first 
separated from the milk, it can, with proper care, be held 
forty-eight hours, or even longer with no unfavorable 
results; but even in winter it is not always safe to pursue 
this course, as many farmers only deliver their milk at the 
the factory once in two days, and as their system for caring 
for it, especially during cold weather is not always the best, 
it is generally safer to churn the cream every twenty-four 
hours. The custom of receiving milk that is two days old, 
at the creamery, is a bad one; and while it cannot be wholly 
avoided, it should never be encouraged. In cases where it 
is unavoidable, the farmers practicing it should receive 
special instruction in regard to cooling and stirring their 
milk. It should never be covered until by aerating it, all 
animal heat has been removed; then it should be stored 
where it will not freeze or be exposed to objectionable 
odors. As a general rule, however, better results will be 
obtained if the cream from all milk held for two days is 
churned ever}' twenty-four hours. 

CHURNING THE CREAM. 

We now come to the consideration of the next factor in 
buttermaking, that of churning the cream; and first, before 
we remove the cream from the vat, let us look into the 
churn. A great deal depends upon its condition. The 
cream may have been properly handled, and ripened exactly 



Butterinakers and Buttermakin^. 163 

to the degree required, and all conditions up to this point 
may be most favorable to the production of a .high grade of 
butter; 3^et every desirable feature may be destroyed in a 
few minutes, by churning it in a germ infected and foul- 
odored churn. The churn must be carefully cleansed 
immediately after having been used; not only the visible, 
but the invisible dirt must be removed by a thorough and 
prolonged scalding. This should be done so completely, 
that no musty or unpleasant odor can be detected. The 
cover should never be left on the churn when not in use; 
but the opening should be covered with cheese cloth to 
admit the air, while it excludes any dust particles that may 
be floating in the room. Run cold water into the churn, 
and give it a few turns in the morning before putting the 
cream into it. The temperature at which cream should be 
churned varies somewhat, according to conditions. Ripened 
cream that will test from thirty-three to thirty-five per cent 
of fav should be churned at quite a low temperature; say 
about fifty-four degrees. So rich a cream will be very 
heavy when ripened, and if churned at a low temperature 
the separation will be slower and more exhaustive; whereas 
if churned at a higher temperature the separation will be 
effected so quickly that considerable fat is likely to be lost 
in the butter-milk. If churned at a low temperature . less 
foreign substances will be left in the butter, in consequence 
of which it will keep much better. Another advantage 
is, it will form a more even granule, requiring less washing 
to remove the butter-milk. This is a factor that should 
receive due attention, as too much washing has a very 
injurious effect upon flavor. The process of churning 
should not require more than thirty or forty minutes; 
neither should it be accomplished in less time; the butter- 
maker should so gauge the temperature as to insure this 
result. Another question is, when should the churn be 



164 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

Stopped ? There is little diversity of opinion among expert 
biittermakers on this point; all agreeing that the churn 
should be stopped when the granules are a little larger than 
wheat kernels. The chief object sought in doing this is to 
preserve the grain, and at the same time, leave no butter- 
milk in the butter. If churned until the butter forms in a 
mass, it requires more washing, which injures the flavor, 
and more working, which affects the grain, to remove the 
milk from the butter. These are two very important 




SQUEEZER COMBINED CHURN AND BUTTER WORKER. 
The Sharpies Co., Chicago, lU. 

features and should be remembered. When the granules 
are formed as stated above, let the churn rest a short time, 
that all particles of butter may rise to the surface; after 
which draw off the butter-milk. When thoroughly drained 
float the butter in water and wash it, by giving the churn a 
few revolutions. Care should be taken that the water used 
is pure and clean; never run water onto the butter that has 
stood in the pipes leading to the churn for an}^ length of 
time. If taken from a tank overhead, the latter should be 
filled with fresh water from the well just before using; be sure 
to keep the tank clean and free from odors, as it is an easy 



Buttermakers and Buttermaking. 165 

matter to greatly impair the flavor of the butter by using 
impure or bad smelhng water. A better way is to draw the 
water for washing the butter directly from the well, where 
it can be done; having a steam connection with the water 
pipe so the temperature can be controled. Cover the end of 
the water pipe with cheese cloth so that no scales or 
particles of dirt can get into the butter. The water should 
run nearly clear when drawn from the butter; if the butter- 
milk has been well drained off and plenty of water used, this 
can usualh' be accomplished with one washing. Remember 
you are now rinsing the butter, not churning, and care 
should be taken not to turn the churn any longer than is 
necessary to separate the butter-milk from it. In order to 
preserve the butter in a granular form until it is salted the 
churn should be well filled with water, to prevent the butter 
from beating into a solid mass while washing. 

SALTING THE BUTTER. 

• After it has been washed and thoroughly drained, it is 
ready for salting. In the first place, be sure the salt is pdre. 
Salt readily absorbs any odor to which it is exposed, and 
before using should be tested by taking a small quantity 
and pouring boiling water over it; this will reveal any odor 
that may be present. If you are using a combination churn 
and worker, the amount of salt necessary will have to be 
■determined by experiment. This can be calculated very 
nearly, by noting the per cent of fat in the cream, and the 
quantity put into the churn. When the butter is worked 
in the churn, about twelve or fifteen per cent should be 
added to the amount of salt, to allow for extra moisture and 
what is lost by adhering to the sides of the churn. In 
salting on a worker greater accuracy is possible; in conse- 
quence of which, the results obtained are usually more 
satisfactory. In either case, the salt should be run through 
a fine sieve to make sure it contains no lumps; this will 



166 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

insure an even distribution of salt over the surface of the 
butter, and it will require less working. If the butter is 
worked but once, care must be taken to have it spread a 
uniform thickness on the worker before the salt is added, 
in order that too much working may not be required to 
secure an even distribution of the salt; thereby avoiding the 
danger of destroying the grain. The final results are often 
more satisfactory when the butter is given two workings; 
there is not so great danger of destroying the grain to avoid 
the presence of mottles. When worked twice, the first 
working should only continue long enough to distribute the 
salt through the butter; then allow it to stand from one and 
one-half to two hours, when it should be worked just 
enough more to take the streaks out. It is well understood, 
that mottles in butter are chiefly due to an uneven distribu- 
tion of salt; the salt is not dissolved in places and its action 
destroys the color. This effect is easier to control when the 
butter is given two workings as just described. There are 
four factors then, of more than ordinary importance that 
enter into buttermaking, between the ripening of the cream 
and packing the butter in tubs. These are first, tempera- 
ture which should be low enough to insure an exhaustive 
churning, that is to leave no fat in the butter-milk. Second,, 
granules; the churn should be stopped when the butter is in 
the granular form, that the butter-milk may be the more 
easily separated from it and to preserve the grain. Third, 
salting; a uniform distribution of the salt, to facilitate the 
process of working and to guard against mottles. Fourth,, 
working; taking care not to over-work the butter, thereby 
destroying the grain and rendering it salvy. 

PACKING THE BUTTKR. 

In discussing this feature of buttermaking we will begin 
with the preparation of the tubs. These should be first 



Buttermakers and Buttermaking . 167 

washed so that the outside is perfectly clean; after which 
place them over a steam jet and steam them until heated 
through; this renders them water-tight, and what is of 
more importance, removes all odor and taste from the wood. 
After this has been attended to they should be filled with 
water, the covers put on, and allowed to soak for at least 
four hours before the butter is packed in them. The better 
wa}' is to prepare the tubs the previous evening; then they 
will be thoroughly soaked and ready for use in the morning. 

LINE THE TUBS. 

The practice of lining butter tubs with parchment 
paper is widely spreading and will soon be universal. It 
not only improves the appearance of the package but there 
are other gains, that far exceed the small extra cost and 
labor occasioned by using the lining. It keeps the butter 
cleaner, prevents the absorption of woody flavors from the 
tub, aids in keeping out mold, assists in stripping and helps 
to. hold the moisture in the butter. Using the lining must 
not be construed as removing the necessity for soaking the 
tubs; this should be done just as thoroughly as if no paper 
were used. In putting the lining in the tub have it extend 
about three-quarters of an inch above the top. Have a pail 
of strong brine at hand and with a brush, wet the paper 
with the brine and smooth it against the inside surface of 
the tub. In packing, put a little butter in at a time, and 
be sure to pack solid; as the butter will keep better, and 
appear much better should it be turned out of the tub or 
stripped. In finishing the butter on the top, cut off level 
with the top of the tub in such a way as will give a smooth 
unbroken surface; turn in the margin of the lining then 
put on a circle; cover this with a thin layer of salt made 
into paste by wetting it, and the tub is ready for the cover. 
Butter put up in this way, if of good quality when packed, 
will usually give entire satisfaction when it reaches the 



168 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym,en. 

market. The same care is necessary in packing butter in 
bail boxes or in prints as is observed when packing in tubs; 
the latter being the usual package found on the general 
market, its use is more universal than other kinds. Butter 
is not usually put up in prints, and other special forms, 
unless on special orders; in such cases the particular kind 
of package desired is usually described in the order. Clean- 
liness and close attention to small details are the winning 
points in butter packing. Remember an attractive exterior 
materially aids in disposing of the contents at satisfactory 
prices; besides it adds much to the business reputation of 
the buttermaker. The prime factors in buttermaking must 
be attended to; those of less importance may be. It is the 
buttermaker who carefully attends to these minor details,, 
who wins the approbation of the trade, and an increase of 
salary from his employer. Buttermaking is not hard labor, 
but it does require adaptability; to one who possesses this 
qualification, the care and close attention his work demands 
is a source of pleasure rather than of fatigue. A laudable 
ambition prompts him to be satisfied with nothing short of 
the best and he derives a pleasure from working toward that 
end. He knows that the butter he makes must run the 
gauntlet of an expert judgment; to do this successfully it is 
required to possess not one, but many qualities of excel- 
lence, each one of which demands special attention. 

UNIFORMITY DEMANDED. 

There is no more important feature in buttermaking 
than uniformity. Even if the quality is not the very highest 
attainable, it should be alike from day to day. A dealer 
receives a shipment of butter from a creamery; it may not 
score quite so high as some, but it meets the requirements 
of a certain demand. He orders another shipment, request- 
ing that the butter be made just like that previously 



Butterniakers and Buttermaking. 169 

received. When it arrives, he finds his request has not 
been complied with; the flavor may be as good as in the 
first instance, but the color is different, it contains more or 
less salt, and the whole or part of it is mottled. What is 
the result? The butter may score as high as the first ship- 
ment, but it does not meet the conditions required and it is 
rejected. Each feature of this difference is the result of 
carelessness on the part of the buttermaker. Had he been 
careful in attending, to the details of coloring, salting, and 
working, the character of his butter would have been 
uniform and satisfactory. The defects mentioned are me- 
chanical and with proper care can easily be controlled; 
indifference therefore can be the only apology for their 
existence. Uniformity then, is one of the chief requisites of 
successful buttermaking; and a knowledge of how to 
maintain it, should be among the first qualifications of the 
buttermaker. 

HOW BUTTER IS SCORED. 
When butter is put on the market it is judged by an 
expert, and classified according to quality. This is about 
the way he determines the quahty. He puts his trier into 
a tub of butter and draws out a sample, which he puts to 
his nose and smells. If the flavor is good, he can tell it; 
if it is bad, no further investigation is required. If good, 
he will continue; examining the grain and the color, and will 
taste it to ascertain how salty it is. For example: He takes 
a sample from a tub and finds the flavor very fine; the cream 
had been properly handled and ripened just right. He next 
examines the grain, and he finds that the churn was allowed 
to run too long, so the butter was churned into a mass, then 
in order to expel the buttermilk, it had been over- worked a 
little, injuring the grain. So he scores it off on grain. He 
finds the color Hghter than the market requires, so he scores 



170 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairytnen. 

it off on color. In tasting it, he finds it contains too little 
salt for the general market, and it is scored off in this par- 
uicular. In this way he proceeds from tub to tub, noting 
the good qualities and the defects of each, and classifjdng 
them according to merit. There, Mr. Buttermaker, is a. 
man who never saw you, and who perhaps lives a thousand 
miles from the creamery where you are working, that knows 
a great deal about your qualifications as a buttermaker. 
Reasoning from the effects, as portrayed in your butter, 
back to the causes that must necessarily exist to produce 
these effects, he can estimate very closely what kind of a 
buttermaker you are; and just about how much attention 
you are giving to the business. You record the facts 5^0 ur- 
self in ever}' tub of butter you send out, and all the expert 
has to do, is to read the record you have written. The 
buttermaker therefore, should have a care how he slights 
the little, and seemingly unimportant details; for as it was 
the little foxes that destroyed the vines, so the small 
neglects may accumulate, until the road to success is hope- 
lessly obstructed. 

BUTTERMAKING ON THE FARM. 

The question is often asked: "Does it pay to make 
butter on the farm"? This depends upon a combination of 
circumstances and conditions. If the farm is large enough 
to support a herd of from fifteen to twenty-five, or more 
cows, it can be made to pay, providing you conform to the 
methods necessary to make any sj^stem of dairying profitable. 
Buttermaking on the farm, in some respects, possesses 
advantages over creamery buttermaking. The farmer is in 
a position, where it is easy to acquire an exact knowledge of 
all existing conditions, and to adopt methods suited to them. 
He knows, or should know, the individual qualities of each 
cow in his herd, just how they are handled, and what 



Buttermakers and Buttertnaking. 171 

they are fed. He has a knowledge of how his milk is cared 
for, how the cream is prepared for the churn, and numerous 
other details of more or less importance, some of which it 
is impossible for the creamery buttermaker to possess or 
understand. He has the advantage of manufacturing butter 
from milk, all of which has been treated in the same way; 
thereby rendering it less difficult to maintain a uniformity 
in quality. In short, he has every detail of the work under 
his personal supervision, 'from the breed of cows kept to the 
marketing of the butter. It would seem therefore, that 
with so many opportunities for acquiring accurate knowl- 
edge, and such an advantage in understanding conditions, 
the farmer who is properly equipped for the work, ought to 
be able to make good butter and have it uniform all the 
time. The question then is, will it pay him to do it? Can he 
realize enough more from the sale of his butter to pay for 
the extra time and labor required, and the cost and main- 
tenance of the necessary equipment for carrying on the 
work? Mr. I^inse, of La Crosse, Wisconsin, who made 
butter on his farm that scored one hundred points at the 
Columbian Exposition, has the following to say on this 
subject: "While I would advise the general farmer to stay 
with the creamery, I can also safely say that many an 
intelhgent farmer might find a productive field to cultivate, 
in making it a specialty to produce fine butter on the farm. 
The farmer is just the man who can accomplish this far 
easier than the creameries, which are depending partly upon 
the honesty and skill of others; but he should never lose 
sight of the fact that he can only be crowned with success, 
if he is exerting all his energy to produce only the best that 
can be produced." This is the testimony of a man who has 
made a success of buttermaking on the farm, and it should 
be given the consideration always due to knowledge ob- 
tained by experience. We find then that enthusiasm is an 



172 Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

essential factor of success. In other words it requires 
adaptability first, then energy and application to render 
home buttermaking profitable. If a farmer possesses these 
requisite qualifications he can undoubtedly make it pay, 
notwithstanding the extra labor and expense incurred. If, 
however, he has an)- doubts regarding his fitness for the 
work, or willingness to devote to it the time and attention 
it requires, he had much better remain with the creamery; 
for while some have succeeded in making home dairying 
pay, better than even they themselves expected or hoped 
for, a great many more have tried it and failed; while 
hundreds of others who have not tried it, would be found 
wholly unfitted for the work should they enter upon it. 
There are a great many factors in buttermaking that must 
be understood before they can be satisfactorily controlled; 
for the farmer to acquire this necessary knowledge by 
experiment is apt to be expensive, and there is no other way 
to acquire it. It is, therefore, wise for him to consider care- 
fully all conditions bearing upon the subject, before he 
leaves the creamery to begin buttermaking on the farm; if, 
however, he believes himself equal to the undertaking, he 
should properly equip himself for the work before beginning 
it. First, he should know that his cows are what they 
should be; a herd may be carried along in creamery work 
quite successfully, that would make an unsatisfactory show- 
ing in the home dairy. It is well understood that while 
some cows may test high and give a large quantity of milk, 
they fail to produce quite so fine a quality of butter as other 
animals testing no higher and giving no more milk than 
they do. In a creamery where a large quantity of milk is 
received and mixed together, this peculiarity in one, or in 
quite a number of cows may not be noticable; but in the 
home dairy where the quantity of milk handled is compara- 
tively small these little defects are likely to reveal them- 



Biitterniakers a?td Buttermaking. 



173 



selves in the butter. In farm dairying, when buttermaking 
is the chief object in view, no better cows can be kept for 
the purpose than thoroughbred or grade Jersey's. The 
butter they produce, if properly made, is not only superior 
in flavor, but it is usually firmer and has a finer grain. 
Next in importance to good cows, is the character of the 
place where the milk and cream are kept and the butter 
is made. Pure air is necessary to the production of fine 
flavored butter; it is difficult, if not imposssble, to maintain 
this condition at all times if the cream is kept and the butter 
is made in a dwelling house. It is advisable then to have a 

CREAMERY BUILDING 

Separated from the dwelling. This building should be 
constructed with the double purpose in view of having it- 
cool in summer and warm in winter To insure these con- 
ditions it should be built of stone, in a shady place if 
possible, and partially under ground. Its size 
must be determined by the quantity of cream to 
be taken care of. To insure pure air and also 
warmth in winter, the building should be equipped 
with a stove and also with an air draught. Mr. 
lyinse, who has already been quoted, has a build- 
ng i6 X 1 6 feet on the inside; this will accom- 
modate the milk of twenty cows. His system 
of ventilation is as follows: A shaft ten inches 
in diameter begins at the level of the floor 
outside of the building and extends 
about six feet above the ground, 
entering the wall under the floor, 
it terminates and opens directly 
under, the stove. The stove is e 
enclosed in a jacket made of tin, mann's acid test 

leaving a space of about four apparatus. 

inches between the stove and the jacket 




On the opposite 



174 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

side of the room from the stove, is a brick chimney about 
ten inches square on the inside and extending down to the 
floor, with a six inch opening at the bottom. The pipe 
from the stove enters the chimney at the proper height and 
is extended up on the inside, to the top of the chimney. In 
this way a circulation of fresh air is secured. The princip'e 
on which this theory is founded need not be explained, as 
nearly all modern houses are provided with ventilation on 
this plan. Proper drainage should be provided for in con- 
structing a milk house, also plenty of fresh, pure water. 

SEPARATING THE CREAM. 

The best and most effective method for obtaining the 
cream is with the separator. The proper time to separate is 
■ in the morning; the night's milk being held over. If the 
farmer does not have a separator, very satisfactory results 
can be obtained by setting the milk in Cooley cans, in cold 
water. To do this properly the milk should not be below a 
temperature of ninety degrees when set, and the water in 
which the cans are placed should be held at a temper ature 
of from forty to forty-five degrees. The centrifugal machine 
however, will give the best results and if possible should be 
the method employed. The other factors in buttermaking 
on the farm are similar to those employed in the creamery 
and need not be explained here. In concluding this brief 
reference to home dairying we will only add that success 
largely depends upon the intelligence and energy applied in 
carrying on the work. The scientific dairyman is the only 
practical dairyman, and success is likely to attend his efforts 
in whatever direction he may deem fit tc> apply them. 

Miscellaneous Suggestions. 

TEMPERING THE MILK. 

In tempering milk for separating, care should be taken 
not to get it too hot. The temperature is easier to control 



Buftermakers and Buttermaking. 175 

when a large or medium sized tempering pan is used. The 
so-called heaters, having a perforated pipe through which 
th^ steam passes into the milk, cannot be recommended; 
they are sure to subject that portion of the milk coming in 
direct contact with the steam to too great a heat, which 
injures the globules and consequently the grain of the 
butter. Steam entering the milk is also liable to carry with 
it impurities from the boiler which will impair the flavor of 
the butter. 

SALTING. 

Use only the best grade of dairy salt in your butter; in 
salting for the general market about three-fourths of an 
ounce to each pound of butter should be used. In determin- 
ing this, however, you must be guided to some extent by 
the condition of your butter; if it has been churned into a 
ma^c and contains considerable buttermilk, more salt is 
needed as more working will be required, which will carry 
off a considerable portion of the salt with the milk. Where 
the granule has been preserved and the butter is well 
drained, from one-half to three-fourths of an ounce of salt^ 
per pound of butter, is about the right proportion. 

USING ICE. 
It is not a commendable practice to put ice into the 
cream when it is churned if it can be avoided. It is much 
better to reduce the cream to the required temperature 
while in the vat, by putting ice in the water that is around 
it. When ice is put into the cream the butter will not 
remain as firm, when subjected to a higher temperature as 
it will when it is not used; neither is it as waxy or so fine 
grained. 

HANDLING THE BUTTER. 

Never handle butter with your hands if it can be 
avoided; as it affects the grain and is liable to impair the 
flavor. Always use a ladle in taking the butter from the 



176 Coiniiion-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

churn and be careful not to destroy the granules; as they 
should be preserved if possible until the salt is added. 
Observe the same care in regard to handling with the hands 
when removing the butter from the worker to the tubs. 

GRASS FLAVOR. 

The flavor imparted to butter by early pasture is some- 
times distasteful. While it may not be possible for the 
creamery buttermaker to change this flavor, the farm dairy- 
man may modify it to some extent by continuing to feed 
the cows a grain ration for a short time after turning them 
out in the spring. This peculiar flavor is due to the green 
pasture, and as the grass matures, will become less marked. 



CKapter 7. 

Cheesemaking. 

It is difficult to determine just where to begin discuss- 
ing the question of cheesemaking; for notwithstanding the 
excellent facilities afforded by our dairy schools and dairy 
associations for instruction along this line, the results are 
not altogether satisfactory. Young men attend the dairy 
schools, where the)' receive instruction in the right methods 
to appl)' in the manufacture of good cheese; but when they 
go out from the schools to begin practical work, they find 
in many of the cheese factories of the west, much of the 
instruction they have received of little use to them. They 
soon discover that the instructors in the dairy schools and 
some of the factory proprietors entertain different ideas as 
to what constitutes a good cheese. The instructors have 
led them to believe a good cheese to be one in which all of 
the fat in the milk is retained, has been well cured and is 
fine flavored; in short is good to eat Some of the factory 
men seek to remove this delusion by imparting the informa- 
tion that the really good cheese is the one that can be sold 
at the largest profit to the manufacturer, and that it may 
not contain a great deal of fat, or be properly cured, or 
necessarily be fit to eat. So they have to begin all over 
again and learn to apply other methods than those taught 
in the schools 

QUALITY OF WESTERN CHEESE. 
If the above statements are not true, why is it the 
cheese made in the middle northwest are, as a general rule, 
inferior in quahty to those made in the states farther east, 

[177] 



178 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

or in the Canadian provinces? It is obvious that this 
inferiority is not due to the existence of less favorable 
natural conditions in the west. Its atmosphere is as salu- 
brious and its soil as productive as that of any dairy country 
in the world. Neither is it attributable to a want of knowl- 
edge as to how good cheese are made; for the opportunities 
for acquiring information on all questions pertaining to the 
dairy industry are as good, if not better in the west, than 
they are in any other part of the country. Then wherein 
lies the difficulty? Is it the result of keeping an inferior 
grade of dairy cows? The time was when this might have 
been a factor of influence; but that day has gone by. The 
quality of dairy stock found on the western farms today 
will compare favorably with those kept for similar purposes 
anywhere in the United States; and the methods employed 
in feeding and caring for them are unsurpassed anywhere in 
the country. While these conditions then, have been 
steadily improving during the past twenty or more years, 
has the qualit}^ of cheese produced improved? Is it, as a 
general thing, as good as it used to be? It is conceeded by 
dairymen of judgement and experience that, while in the 
west every other feature of dairying has steadily improved, 
the cheese produced has depreciated in quality. Of course 
this is not true of all cheese made in the west, but the 
product considered as a whole, is not as good as it was 
twenty years ago. 

WHY IT IS INFERIOR? 

There appears to be two prime causes for this 
decadence in the quality of western cheese. The first is, a 
perversion of superior methods of making cheese, by a con- 
siderable number of our manufacturers, for selfish purposes, 
and second, inadequate state and national laws regulating 
the manufacture and sale of dairy products. The first con- 



Cheesemaking. 179 

dition alluded to, is no doubt the principal cause; while the 
the second, niaj' be justly considered an accessory after the 
fact. 

SKIM CHEESE. 
This affiant knows that in the early history of factory 
made cheese in Wisconsin, and the same conditions prevail 
in neighboring states, the principal object in view was to 
make good cheese. Factory proprietor , and cheesemaker 
were alike actuated by a desire to reach the highest degree 
of excellence attainable. Every other consideration was 
made subservient to this one object — quality. It was not 
so much a question with them, how large a profit can be 
realized from it, as how good can we make it; and they 
realh" did make good cheese. When we consider the light 
possessed and the crude materials with which they had to 
work, it is remarkable that the}' succeeded as well as they 
did; and if all the manufacturers of today would but 
emulate the laudable example set by the early cheese pro- 
ducer the quality of his goods would be unsurpassed in 
excellenC^e by any cheese made. Thus would the high 
character of the output become the pride, rather than the 
shame of the progressive dairymen of the middle northwest. 
Man}' of the cheese manufacturers of today, however, are 
not doing business in this wa}-. The}' will admit that the 
course pursued b}- their early predecessors was laudable and, 
no doubt, well suited to the time in which they made 
chees; but not at all applicable to more modern busines 
methods. They argue that in these days of close competi- 
tion the manufacturer must give more thought to his 
margins than to the quality of his product, if he would not 
be left behind in the headlong race after wealth. Satisfied 
with this course of reasoning, the cheese manufacturer 
began, a few years ago, to look for ways and means by 
which he might increase his profits; and after some thought 



180 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

and reflection, decided upon the production of skim cheese 
as the most available resource for the accomplishment 
of this purpose. He reasoned that the extraction of a 
small quantity of fat from the milk would make no 
perceptible difference in the quality of the cheese, but that 
it would materially increase the profits of the business So 
he began to make skim cheese. At first he did not skim 
very closely; he was satisfied with taking- about a pound of 
butter from each one hundred pounds of milk. In fact this 
was about all he could take at that time, for as centrifugal 
separators were not then in general use, the cream had to be 
gathered in the old way, and it was difficult, especially in 
warm weather, to hold the milk long enough to secure a 
larger amount of butter fat, without its souring, thus 
becoming unfit for cheese production. So he took his pound 
of butter and continued, so far as the customer knew, to 
make full cream cheese. For a time his cheese, disguised 
as full creams, continued to sell for the old price; while the 
pound of butter he had filched from each one hundred 
pounds of milk brought him, say twenty-five cents. Thus 
it will be seen he was getting tv/enty-five cents, assuming 
that to be the average market price per pound for butter, 
more for every one hundred pounds of milk he made up, 
than was the manufacturer who continued to do business in 
the old way. He at once realized that he had hit upon a 
paying scheme, and he congratulated himself on his wisdom 
and sagacity. Like every one who has found a good thing 
he wanted more of it; so he at once began to devise means 
whereby he could increase his number of patrons and thus 
procure more milk and larger profits. To accomplish this 
end he gave the farmers a small portion of the twenty-five 
cents received for the fat unrighteously with-held fron the 
cheese consumer, by advancing the price of milk a few 
cents per hundred pounds. This was an attractive bait, 



Cheeseinaking. 181 

well suited to the accomplishment of the purpose for which 
it was thrown out. The result was, the farmers withdrew 
their patronage from the factories whose proprietors were 
not yet onto the scheme, and flocked to him. They not 
only sold him their milk, but they praised his liberality and 
spoke admiringly of his superior business talent; thus, 
unconsciously becoming parties to a fraudulent practice. 
Other factory men, however, soon learned the secret of his 
success and were not slow in adopting his methods. Thus, 
like Jack's famous bean stalk, the skim cheese industry 
grew, as it were in a single night, from a small beginning 
to gigantic proportions. Some manufacturers engaged in 
its production willingly; while others were forced into it by 
the strong arm of competition. The wide spread introduc- 
tion of the centrifugal cream separator rendered skimming 
more easy, which fact, coupled with an ever growing spirit 
of avarice, and an active competition led to closer and closer 
skimming; until at length the whole of the butter fat was 
taken and a foreign and less expensive fat substituted. This 
marked the beginning of the era of 

FILLED CHEESE. 

The light skim was father to the hard skim, and the 
hard skim was father to filled cheese. It can be readily 
seen that if skim cheese had never been manufactured the 
filled article would never have existed. It is an open 
question which has worked the greatest injury to the cheese 
industry, the skim cheese or the filled cheese; both are 
inferior to the genuine article and both are manufactured 
with a view to deceiving the consumer. It is designed that 
when he purchases either, he shall pay for something he 
does not receive. This statement is generally denied by the 
manufacturers of these goods; but no better proof of its 
truthfulness is needed than is afforded by the action of 



182 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

the Wisconsin manufacturers after the passage of the 
dairy law, at present in force in that state. It was claimed 
by them while this measure was under consideration by the 
legislature, that neither skim nor filled cheese were sold for 
what they were not. They contended that their cheese was 
branded and sold for just what it was, and so long as it was 
not injurious to health, they doubted very much the right 
of the state to legislate it out of existence. Bear in mind 
the fact that this law does not prohibit the making of skim 
cheese, but only regulates its manufacture. It provides 
that skim cheese shall be made a prescribed size and shape, 
so that an}'one familiar with the law can easily distinguish 
it from other grades. If the manufacturers were sincere in 
their protestations, why did they not continue to make skim 
cheese? The fact remains, however, that not a skim cheese 
has been made in that state since this law went into effect, 
which is over five years ago. There being no longer an 
opportunity to deceive the consumer as to the quality of this 
cheese, its production at once became unprofitable and was 
immediately abandoned. The next question to consider is, 
was, or is the 

FARMER BENEFITED 

By the production of skim or filled cheese? No doubt, for a 
time the making of these goods resulted in a small increase 
in the price obtained by the farmer for his milk. As has 
already been stated he was given a small portion of the 
extra profits received by the manufacturers, but only 
enough to keep him in line. If he showed unmistakable 
signs of dissatisfaction with the price he received, and 
threatened to assume control of the manufacturing of his 
own milk, a sop was tendered him in the shape of a small 
increase in the price he obtained for it. To fully compre- 
hend how this was accomplished it is necessary to understand 
the system employed by the factorymen in paying the 



Cheesemaking. 18S 

farmer for his milk. In a large majority of creameries 
and cheese factories throughout the country, the farmer is 
paid by what is known as the dividend S3'Stem; the factory- 
man manufactures the milk into butter and cheese and looks 
after the sale of the products for a certain price per pound; 
which is usuall}' four cents a pound for butter and one and 
one-half cents per pound for cheese. What remains after 
deducting the cost of making is divided pro-rata among the 
patrons. This apportionment w^as formerlj^ based upon 
quantity. Each patron receiving suuh a proportion of the 
whole dividend as the quantity of milk he delivered during 
a certain period, sustained to the whole quantity received at 
the factory during the same period. Since the introduction 
of the Babcock test a more equitable system of division has 
been established; the dividend a patron now receives being 
based upon the relation of the fat content of his milk, 
to the fat content of all the milk received at the 
factory for a given time. Therefore all money received 
from the sale of cheese as well as from the sale of 
butter is divided on a butter fat basis, and the price 
the patron receives for a pound of fat is determined 
by dividing the sum realized from the sale of both these 
products for a given time, usually one month, less the cost 
for making, by the whole number of pounds of fat obtained 
during the same time. Now if the money received from the 
sale of all the butter produced, and all the cheese produced 
was honestly divided among the patrons after deducting the 
price for making, the only advantage resulting to the manu- 
facturer from the making of either skim or filled cheese 
would be from the increased number of pounds produced. 
Thus if he was making only butter, and received four cents 
a pound for making it, and got a yield of four and one-half 
pounds per hundred weight of milk, he would be getting 
eighteen cents for every hundred pounds of milk he made 



184 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

up; but if he were skimming three pounds to the hundred 
and was making eight pounds of skim cheese out of the 
milk remaining, he would receive twelve cents for making 
the butter, and at one and one-half cents a pound would 
receive twelve cents for making the cheese; thus receiving 
twenty-four cents for every hundred pounds of milk made 
up. This would give him an increase of six cents when 
butter and cheese were made, over what he obtained when 
butter alone was produced. This is all the increase he 
would be entitled to; the balance being the property of the 
patrons. L,et us see what this would be, estimating the 
market value of butter at twenty-five cents a pound and of 
three pounds skim cheese at nine cents a pound. When 
butter alone was made, and the yield was four and one-half 
pounds per hundred, and the market price of butter twenty- 
five cents per pound, the patron would receive, after paying 
eighteen cents for making, ninety -four and one-half cents 
per hundred for his milk When three pounds of butter 
were taken out of his milk, and eight pounds of skim cheese 
made out of the balance, he ought to receive one dollar and 
twenty-three and one-half cents for each hundred pounds of 
milk after paying for the making. He should therefore 
receive twenty-eight and one-half cents more for each 
hundred pounds of milk when both butter and cheese were 
made than he did when only butter was made. In other 
words, when the prices and yields given above prevailed, 
the patron of the creamery should have received twenty- 
eight and one-half cents less in cash per hundred for his 
milk, than had the patron of the factory where three pounds 
of butter was taken from the milk and both butter and skim 
cheese were made. Of course it is understood this difference 
would vary, being dependent upon the yield obtained and 
the prices received. Our purpose, however, is to show that 
there is a difference, which may be greater or less than that 



Cheesemaking. 185 

given in the foregoing illustration. To be sure it can be 
argued that the creamery patron has his skim milk returned 
to him while the cheese factory patron does not; and its 
feed value should be taken into consideration in estimating 
the price the former receives for his milk. This is very 
true but we are only dealing here with the cash receipts; and 
and we merel)^ asked the question, Is it usual for the skim 
cheese factory patron to receive so much more per hundred 
for his milk in cash than does the creamery patron? Is the 
difference between the prices they obtain more than eight or 
twelve cents per hundred pounds of milk? Is it not a fact 
that the difference is often much less than that given above? 
Does this difference ever rise above a closely estimated feed 
value for the skim milk, and if not, why not? Is it because 
the making of skim cheese will not produce a larger increase 
in the money receipts of the factor}-? Is it urged that the 
factory expenses are increased by the making of them? Is 
claimed that the yield quoted above is too large, and the 
prices named cannot be obtained? If these unfavorable 
factors exist, then why make then at all? Why not make 
only butter when the price of that product is satisfactory, 
and when the price of cheese promises better returns then 
make only full cream cheese? This is the only proper and 
legitimate course to pursue. We are not, however, discuss- 
ing this feature of the question; but are endeavoring to 
learn whether or no the immediate profits of the business 
are increased by the making of skim cheese, and if so 

WHO GETS THE PROFITS ? 

It is reasonable to believe the profits are materially 
increased, otherwise skim cheese would not be made; there- 
fore, the unfavorable factors brought forward in the above 
queries cannot exist. The yield given in the foregoing 
illustration is not too large. The methods at present 



186 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

employed in making skim cheese renders it comparitively 
easy to obtain a yield of nine pounds per hundred pounds of 
milk when making three pounds skims, while the system of 
curing emploj-ed renders the per cent of loss from shrinkage 
less with this class of goods than with full cream cheese. 
As to the price received for them, if properly made, they 
often bring within two cents of as much per pound as full 
creams. During the winter of 1899 and 1900 the writer 
knows for a certainty that one factory in northern Illinois 
sold thousands of pounds of skim cheese, containing but 
eight-tenths of one per cent of fat, for nine cents a pound. 
At the same time quotations for full cream cheese ranged 
from ten to eleven and one-half cents a pound. As to the 
cost of making, there is no greater outlay required in the 
production of skim cheese than there is in making full 
creams, and but little more than where butter alone is made. 
It is obvious then, that when a market can be obtained for 
the product, the making of skim cheese does, under ordinary 
conditions materially increase the money obtained for each 
one hundred pounds of milk made up, over what is received 
for a like amount when either butter or full cream cheese 
alone is made. The source of this increased revenue, it will 
be readily seen, is the small difference in the price received 
for full cream cheese and skim cheese, and the money 
obtained for the butter taken out of the milk. The question 
then' is, who gets this increased revenue, the farmer or the 
manufacturer? To be sure, where the factory man buys the 
milk from the farmer at a price agreed upon per can or per 
hundred pounds, it belongs to him, and all right of the 
farmer in either the milk or its product ceases. The condi- 
tions, however, are altogether different when dividends are 
paid. This system gives the manufacturer no proprietory 
right either in the milk delivered at his factory or its 
products. He is merely an agent for the farmer who, for a 



Cheesemaking. 187 

stipulated price per pound, agrees to receive the farmer's 
milk, make it into butter and cheese, and sell it for him; 
then, after deducting the price agreed upon for making, 
turn the balance of the proceeds over to him. As such 
agent, it is his duty to consult the best interests of the 
farmer at all times, and to so manufacture and dispose of 
his butter and cheese, as to bring to him the largest legiti- 
mate returns obtainable for his milk. Are these conditions 
always complied with? Does the manufacturer usually 
provide the farmer with a statement showing the amount of 
product made and the price for which it was sold ? On the 
other hand, does the farmer who takes his milk to the 
factory where dividends are paid, generally insist on being 
provided with reliable information as to the disposition made 
of his milk, where its products are sold, and the prices 
received for them? It is not our purpose to answer the 
question we have asked as to who gets the larger share of 
the profits resulting from the making of skim cheese, the 
manufacturer or the farmer. We leave the settlement 
of this proposition to the farmer himself. It would seem, 
however, as though good business management would dictate 
to the farmer the necessity for knowing what disposition 
his agent, the manufacturer, makes of the milk entrusted to 
him. Then questions of this character would never have to 
be asked or answered. We do not wish to convey the 
impression that all manufacturers of skim cheese are dis- 
honest, or desirous of taking an undue advantage of the 
farmers who entrust them with their milk. Such is not the 
case; but the making of this class of goods, by a few 
unscrupulous manufacturers, has forced hundreds of honest 
factorymen to adopt like methods or be driven out of 
business. The farmers themselves have unconsciously aided 
in establishing these conditions. If they heard of a factory- 
man giving a few cents more for milk than they were 



188 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen, 

receiving, they did not endeavor to learn the character of 
the methods he adopted that enabled him to do this, but at 
once demanded that their own manufacturer meet the com- 
petition or lose their patronage. A little investigation on 
their part at this time would have disclosed the fact, that 
what appeared to be a benefit to the milk producers was in 
reality a hindrance to their progression. Had they realized 
this truth they would undoubtedly have refused to sacrifice, 
for a small temporal advance in the price of milk, the future 
healthful development of their chosen industry; for whatever 
immediate advantage the making of skim and filled cheese 
may have afforded them, even had they at all times received 
all that was rightfully their due, in the end it was sure to 
work injury to the dairy business. 

WHY DOES IT NOT PAY ? 

The question might suggest itself here, if skim cheese 
can be sold so near the price received for full creams, how 
can it be claimed it does not pay to make it? There are 
several potent reasons why it does not pay. In the first 
place, as has been previously affirmed, it is deceptive and no 
business is entitled to recognition, the prosperity of which 
is dependent upon its ability to deceive. Skim cheese could 
never be sold for the prices often obtained for it if the con- 
sumer knew what he was purchasing; consequently every 
cent it costs him above its actual value is obtained from him 
by false pretense; and any business that can only succeed 
by such practices cannot be said to pay. Another reason 
why it does not pay is, its production curtails demand while 
it increases supply. It is well understood that when supply 
increases and demand decreases prices go down. By manu- 
facturing skim cheese more cheese is produced. By selling 
skim cheese less cheese is consumed. More cheese is pro- 
duced because more milk is available for its production. 



Cheeseinaking. 189 

When full cream cheese is made only milk in which all the 
fat retained enters into its composition; consequently full 
cream cheese and butter cannot both be obtained from the 
same milk. Therefore when the butter supply increases the 
full cream cheese suppl}' diminishes , and the more full cream 
cheese made the less butter can be produced. It is different, 
however, when skim cheese is made; the milk from which 
the fat has been taken and made into butter is utilized in its 
production and the cheese suppl}" is proportionately 
increased. The demand is lessened by the production of 
skim cheese because a smaller quantity of it is eaten. The 
reason for this is simple enough. If an article of food is 
palatable we eat more of it than we do when it is not. The 
consumer maj^ be deceived into paying full cream cheese 
price for a wedge of skim cheese, but he cannot be fooled 
into eating it with the same relish; therefore he eats less of 
it, and the result is he buys less of it. Contrast this result 
with the conditions likely to prevail if only high grade full 
cream cheese was made. Mr. H. C. Adams, Wisconsin's 
efficient dairy and food commissioner, says the following in 
regard to cheese consumption: "If all the cheese which is 
consumed on American tables could be made strictly first 
class and well ripened, and as good as cheese can be made, 
inside of a week there would not be half cheese enough to 
feed the American people." Mr. Adams is not a man who 
indulges in idle or extravagant assertions. This quality, 
coupled with a comprehensive mind and unexcelled facilities 
for obtaining accurate information on all problems connected 
with dair3'ing, lends additional weight to his conclusions. 
Yet if the results he anticipates were only half realized the 
cheese industry would be greatly benefited by the production 
of only high grade goods; increased consumption would 
lead to greater demand and better and more vmiform prices. 
The production of skim cheese is injurious, in that it lowers 



190 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym.en. 

the price of the genuine article, not only by increasing the 
supply, but its inferior quality tends to a general lowering 
of values; for this the full cream product is made to suffer. 
The small margin, so often existing between its price and 
that of skim cheese, is largely the result of these conditions. 

REPUTATION NECESSARY. 

An untarnished reputation is as essential to the growth 
and prosperity of a business as it is to the advancement of 
an individual. Neither can win perfect success without it. 
They ma}' appear, for a time, to achieve success while 
recklessly disregarding the character of methods b}^ which 
it is attained; but if these methods are deceptive, or dis- 
honest, like a boomerang they will sooner or later react 
upon themselves, when disaster is sure to follow. So a 
single departure from legitimate management maj^, in a very 
brief space of time, work an injury to a business or industry 
that it wall require years of honest and unremitting effort to 
overcome. It cannot be denied that this has been the effect 
produced upon the cheese industry of the west by the 
making of skim and filled cheese. To verify this as^ump- 
tion you have but to review the past and present conditions 
in Wisconsin. Not many years ago that state enjoyed a 
reputation for the production of cheese, the superior quality 
of which was unsurpassed anywhere in the United States, 
with the single exception, perhaps, of the state of New 
York; and Wisconsin was rapidly plucking the laurels from 
this, her only rival. Wisconsin-made cheese had won such 
a reputation on the market, that occasionally some unscru- 
pulous and dishonest manufacturer in a neighboring state, 
would endeavor to disguise his own counterfeit product by 
putting upon it the Wisconsin brand. Wisconsin cheese 
was sought after everywhere, and, at all times, brought the 
highest price obtainable for any goods on the market. This 



Cheesemaking. 191 

was the advanced position ihe state had reached when the 
making of skim cheese was introduced. Only a few manu- 
facturers made them at the beginning; but, one by one they 
fell into line, until nearly every factory in the southern 
portion of the state was making them. These in a short 
time were superseded by the filled cheese, and as a result, 
Wisconsin's high prestige faded like a rainbow. Her cheese 
product at once dropped to the level of the spurious com- 
modity made in other states. A few manufacturers built, 
up ample fortunes upon the wrecked reputation of their 
state; but the milk producer gained nothing. When the 
opportunity to further enrich themselves was taken away 
from them by the enactment of prohibitory and restrictive 
laws the manufacturers could tear the machinery from their 
factories and move on to more fertile and unworked fields. 
The producer, however, could not do this. He could not 
carry his farm away with him, so the only alternative left 
him was, either to abandon the dairy business or to bravely 
meet the adverse conditions that confronted him, and begin 
again the slow work of reestablishing it upon a legitimate 
foundation. We have made only casual reference in these 
pages to the making of filled cheese. Not because its 
influence, as a destructive factor in the dairy business, is 
under estimated or misunderstood, but for the reason that 
its power to work further harm has been destroyed by 
legislation that is practically prohibitory. When unrestrict- 
ed, it was a more formidible obstacle in the way of legitimate 
advancemet than was the skim cheese. It afforded larger 
returns, and consequently made a stronger appeal to 
avaricious desire. While it cannot be said that the injury 
to the cheeese industry in the west was made any more 
certain by the making of filled cheese than it is by the 
existence of the skim cheese, the ultimate ruin of this 
branch of the dairy industry would no doubt have been 



192 Conitnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

hastened, if its continued production was allowed. Its men- 
acing influence, however, has been neutralized by legal 
enactment; but its less formidable appearing though scarcely 
less dangerous companion, the skim cheese, is still with us 
and is given unrestricted license in nearly all the western 
states, to menace and retard the growth of the cheese 
industry. 

We now come to a consideration of the second cause for 
the production of inferior grades of cheese. 

INADEQUATE LAWS. 

While the enactment of a law to meet every anticipa'ed 
evil, which may have no existence outside of the brain of 
some zealous reformer, is neither to be commended or 
advised, }et when an evil does exist and its operation 
threatens either the moral or material interests of society, it 
is the people's dutj^ as a self protecting measure, to adopt 
such legislation as will curtail or destroy the wrong, and 
secure the safety of their interests. We have referred to 
the general want of adequate legislatioti to properly protect 
the dair}^ interests of the country, as being an accessory 
after the fact. It is so regarded, because of its tardiness in 
affording relief from fraudulent practices, long after exist- 
ing conditions showed the necessit}^ for such protection. 
The dair}^ industry has been retarded in its growth by the 
presence of adverse conditions, which might have been long 
since removed, had the remedy of efficient legislation been 
applied. What has been accomplished b}^ the few really 
wise and properl}^ enforced enactments of the national and 
some of the state governments, bearing upon this question, 
prove conclusively ■ the potency of well directed law to 
eliminate from our dairy system the last vestige of illegiti- 
mate methods. Then wh}' not have the neccessary laws? 
The farmers of the country are vested with power to remove 



Cheesentakijig. 193 

the obstructions by which greed and avarice have retarded 
the progress of legitimate dairying; therefore, the responsi- 
bihty for success or faikire rests with them. L,et us consider 
what has been accomphshed in this direction by competent 
legislation. In 1895 Wisconsin passed a law prohibiting 
the manufacturing of filled cheese and regulating the manu- 
facturing of skim cheese. This was not her first legislation 
on this question, but it was the first from which any 
permanent benefits were derived; and why? Simply because, 
in framing previous laws, she listened to the counsels of 
men whose personal interests would have been imperiled 
by the operation of effectual measures. These men always 
succeeded in. having a weak link left in the chain, or a gap 
in the fence; thereby deluding the uninitated into the belief 
that there was strength where there was onl}^ \\ eakness, and 
that their interests were baricaded against fraud and 
deception, when in reality these interests were wholly 
unprotected. The law of 1895 was different, in that it was 
never out of the hands of its friends, and was really as 
strong at every point as its appearance indicated. The 
farmers, the milk producers of the state, arose in their 
might and demanded in uncompromising terms, relief from 
the counterfeit methods that were sapping the life of the 
state's most important industry. What was the result ? In 
a single day the filled and skim cheeese business was wiped out 
and has never since been re-instated. This illustrates what 
can be accomplished when the people are sincere and insist 
upon securing their rights. So much for state legislation. 
Now let us see what has been accomplished by U. S. law. 
On Sept. ist, 1896, the national enactment, regulating the 
manufacture of filled cheese went into effect. This measure 
not only requires the manufacturer of filled cheese to pay a 
license for the privilege of making it, but it provides for the 
collection of a revenue on every pound manufactured. 



194 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

These requirements made such an inroad upon the profits of 
the business that but few factorymen have continued to 
make it. Therefore the operation of the law is really 
prohibitory in its effects. 

NATIONAL VERSUS STATE LEGISLATION. 

While state laws may have a wholesome effect in 
retarding the growth of objectionable factors in dairy 
pursuits, they are not far enough reaching to totally 
eradicate them. This fact was forcibly illustrated by the 
prevailing conditions immediately after the enactment of 
the Wisconsin filled cheese law. Nearly eighteen months 
elapsed after the passage of that measure before the national 
law went into effect. During that year and a half, though 
the enormous quantity of filled cheese previously made in 
Wisconsin was cut off, there was no perceptible lessening 
in the quantity of this cheese put upon the market. The 
reason for this was that many factorymen in adjoining states 
who had not previously made filled cheese, were induced to 
engage in its manufacture; believing that the withdrawal of 
the Wisconsin product from the market would create a 
scarcity, and a consequent raise in prices. Thus the benefits 
resulting from the state law were confined by state lines, 
and had little influence on outside conditions. How was it 
though, when the national law went into effect? As has 
already been stated, nearly all the manufacturers of filled 
cheese stopped making it, and one of the two most powerful 
enemies of American cheese production disappeared in a 
day. 

When the cheese product of a state is composed of 
various qualities, the lower grades usually fix the standard 
by which its output is judged. To illustrate: If one-half 
the cheese made in Illinois was high grade full cream, and 
the other half skim, and both were sold, we will say in 



Cheesentaking. I95 

England, it would be found that the skim cheese regulated 
the standard by which the grade of Illinois cheese was 
determined. So again, if one or two states are producing 
onl,v high grade cheese, and other states are making inferior 
qualities, and all are marketed in Europe, as American goods, 
the poorer grades will in all probability, determine the 
standard of American cheese on the European market; there 
being no discrimination made in favor of the good product 
over the poorer qualities. It is evident therefore, that no 
single state, or limited number of states can raise the 
standard of the dairy products of the United States as they 
go abroad; but the United states can, and should estabhsh 
this standard. Ontario alone could not raise the standard 
of Canadian cheese, if the other provinces were allowed to 
make inferior goods and brand them the same as the 
genuine; but as the laws regulating the manufacture and 
sa'e cf Canadian cheese, are made and enforced by the 
Dominion government, there is a uniform standard through- 
out the provinces. Hence the uniform excellence of Cana- 
dian cheese. The cheese producing states of the Union will 
always be more or less handicapped in their efforts to raise 
the standard of their product, unless the general government 
affords the necessary relief by the adoption of such measures 
as will establish a uniform grade of excellence, that will be 
alike operative in all the states. 

STANDARD OF QUALITY. 

Another obstacle in the way of improved cheese pro- 
duction in the dairy states, is the absence of any graded 
standard of excellence by which quality and value can be 
determined. The term "full cream cheese", does not 
convey any accurate information as to quality, further than 
that the cheese is made of milk from which no fat has been 
aken. What the quality of the milk may have been is 



196 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairytnen. 

seldom asked and is as seldom known. Thus, the milk 
received at one factory may show an average of four and 
one-half pounds of fat to each one hundred pounds of milk. 
If no part of this fat is taken out of the milk, the cheese 
made from it is called "full cream". Another factory may 
take in milk that only contains an average of three and one- 
half pounds of fat to each one hundred pounds received. If 
this milk is made into cheese without removing any of the 
fat, the product is also called "full cream cheese". The 
output of each of these factories is placed upon the market 
under a brand representing the same quality; yet the cheese 
made in one of them contains nearly twenty-nine per cent 
more fat than does that made in the other. It will be 
readily seen therefore, the mere fact that a cheese is 
branded "full cream" does not insure its being of the first 
quality, though it may have been properly made and cured; 
as its name conveys no accurate knowledge of its fat content. 
There is little doubt, therefore, that the absence of any 
measure whereby actual quality is determined, had much to 
do with the origin of skim cheese. For instance, "A" dis- 
covers that the milk delivered at his factory contains a 
larger amount of fat than that received at "B's" factory; 
both are making full cream cheese, and both are receiving 
about the same price for their product. "A" does not see 
that he will be robbing anyone if he takes enough fat out of 
his milk to bring it down to the quality of "B's" and makes 
a little butter. Surely his cheese, if made and cured as 
carefully, will still be as good as "B's," and he will be 
ahead just the value of the fat he has taken out. This 
reasoning does not seem to be altogether devoid of logic; 
but it is rendered logical only by the inefficiency of the 
methods employed in determining the degree of quality 
cheese contains. Would it not be more equitable if the 
money value of cheese was determined b}^ its actual fat 



Cheesemaking. 2.97 

content? If cheese is dry and hard, or off in flavor, the 
purchaser does not have to be an expert judge to discover 
these defects. He cannot, however, determine whether all 
the fat was retained in the milk of which it was made, or 
just how much fat has been taken out of it. If a national law 
were enacted providing for the inspection of cheese, and for 
grading it according to the fat it contains, it seems as 
though many of the hindrances that now stand in the way 
of legitimate cheese production would be removed. If all 
the cheese made was required to undergo inspection and its 
grade determined before being placed on the market, prices 
would soon adjust themselves to the several qualities pro- 
duced, and not only would the rights of the consumer be 
protected, but the chief incentive for producing inferior 
qualities would be taken away. 

HOW CHEESE IS MADE. 
We now come to a consideration of the mechanical 
process by which cheese is made. It requires considerable 
adaptability, and close application to details to make good 
cheese. It also requires pure and rich milk. The idea 
seems to prevail among some farmers and factory proprietors 
that milk of any quality or in any condition that is not 
actually sour will do to make into cheese. This is a very 
eroneous conclusion; for it is doubtful if any article made 
from milk is more susceptible to unfavorable conditions in 
the latter, than is cheese. Then if your aim is to make 
cheese that is strictly first class in every particular, the first 
important requirement is to have milk that is rich in fat, 
and has been properly cared for. The two principal qualities 
to be sought for in cheese production, are 

FEAVOR AND TEXTURE. 

The first named is the most important quality, and 
requires the greater skill and care to obtain. There are a 



198 



Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



great many factors entering into the production of right 
flavor, none of which can be overlooked or neglected with- 
out adversely affecting final results. Chief among these 
factors, as has been stated, is the quality and condition 
of the milk from which the cheese is made. An influential 
source of flavor in cheese is perhaps from the feed given 
to the stock. This effect may be favorable or it may be 
unfavorable. If the cows are feeding on rich pasture and 
are drinking only pure water, or if they are fed on well 
preserved silage or properly cured clover hay, the effect on 




CHEESE VAT. 



cheese flavor will be good; but if they are given potatoes in 
large quantities, or turnips, mouldy silage, in short any 
kind of feed that is not pure and wholesome, the effect on 
flavor will be bad. The more fertile source, however, of 
bad effects in this direction is from the decomposition of the 
constituents of the milk, brought about bj^ improper care in 
cooling, and in neglecting to guard against contamination 
from dust, foul odors, etc. How to prevent this infection 
is fully explained in another chapter. The methods em- 
ployed in scalding the curd, acid development, and curing 



Cheesetnaking. , 199 

are also influential factors in the production of flavor. The 
texture of cheese may be said to depend largely upon the 
following conditions, viz: The fat content of the milk, the 
degree of acid developed in the milk at the time the rennet 
is added, the temperature at which the curd is cooked, the 
length of time and manner in which it is stirred while in the 
whey, the degree of acid developed in the curd while 
matting, and the quantity of salt used in the cheese. 

We will now give a few general directions as to how to 
proceed in the making of full cream cheese, from the 
time the milk is received in the vat, until the cheese is 
ready to put on the shelves in the curing room. The 
process of curing will be treated under another heading. 

PRKPARING THE MILK FOR THE RENNET. 

Assuming that the milk is received in good condition, 
the first thing a good cheesemaker will seek to accomplish is 
to develop a certain degree of lactic acid before coagulating 
the milk with rennet. To do this, he should add about five 
per cent of starter to the sweet milk in the vat. In prepar- 
ing this starter employ the method suggested in the chapter 
on buttermaking. After putting in the starter, the milk 
should be heated to a temperature of about eighty-four 
degrees, then allowed to ripen. In heating, never apply 
the steam directly to the milk, but secure the required 
temperatin-e by heating water in the wooden vat surround- 
ing the tin one containing the milk. During the process of 
ripening stir the milk frequently to prevent the cream from 
gathering on the surface. Cream allowed to remain on the 
surface of the milk, for any length of time, becomes dry 
and cannot be again distributed; this cream will not enter 
into the cheese, but will be carried off with the whey. The 
degree of acid to develop in the milk before setting depends 
upon many conditions; but assuming the character of the 



200 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

milk to be normal, it should be ripened to such a degree of 
acidity as will require about two and a half hours, from the 
time of setting, for the curd to string one-fourth of an inch 
when tested on a hot iron. In determining the degree of 
acid to which the milk is ripened, use the rennet test which 
will be explained a little further along. 

ADDING THK RENNET. 

When ripe enough to set, the milk should be thorough- 
ly stirred, so as to distribute the cream evenl)^ throughout 
the whole mass, and it should be kept at the same tempera- 
ture as during the process of ripening — about eighty-four 
degrees. In setting, use such a quantity of rennet as will 
produce perfect coagulation in about sixteen or eighteen 
minutes. If the rennet used is of normal strength, to secure 
this result, will require about four fluid ounces of rennet to 
each one thousand pounds of milk. Of course the tempera- 
ture and acidity of the milk will greatly influence the time 
it requires to obtain a perfect coagulation; both of these 
conditions should, however, be regulated as directed above. 
In preparing the rennet for the milk dilute it with water, 
using about twelve parts water to one part rennet, and heat 
it to about the same temperature as that of the milk in the 
vat. When putting in the rennet, pour it along the center the 
whole length of the vat, after which stir the milk gently but 
thoroughly with a rake, in order that the rennet may be 
evenly distributed. It is advisable to continue to agitate the 
surface of the milk by moving a scoop, or some other utensil, 
lightly over it until coagulation begins, in order that no 
cream may rise; for any fat that is permitted to gather on 
the surface of the milk during the process of setting is 
lost to the cheese. Care must be taken, however, to cease 
this agitation the moment the milk begins to thicken, or a 
perfect coagulation will not be obtained. 



Cheese-making. ' 201 

CUTTING THE CURD. 

To determine when the milk is sufficiently coagulated 
to apply the knife, press the finger gently on its surface and 
if the indentation made remains after removing the finger, 
it is ready to cut. Another way of determining is, to press 
the finger on the curd near the side of the vat, and if the 
curd breaks clean from the tin for about one inch, it is 
ready for the knife. In making full cream cheese alwaj^s 
use the perpendicular and horizontal knives in cutting the 
curd. Cut first lengthwise of the vat with the perpendicular 
knife, being careful to reach to the bottom and to move 
slowl}^, that the curd may be cut clean and not torn apart. 
After cutting the curd lengthwise of the vat as directed, 
wait until the whe}^ begins to rise to the surface, through 
the seams made b}' the knife, before cutting the other way. 
After cutting the curd both lengthwise and across the vat 
with the perpendicular knife, cut it one way with the hori- 
zontal knife, preferably across the vat, as this affords a 
better opportunity to cut the curd close to the sides. If the 
cutting is properly done the curd will be left in cubes about 
three-fourths of an inch square on each side. 

STIRRING THE CURD. 

This is a very important feature in the mechanical part 
of cheese making. It is quite an easy matter for a careless 
or indifferent cheesemaker to waste more than his wages 
amount to while performing this work. Great care must be 
taken not to tear or break the cubes when the process of 
stirring is begun, as this involves a greater or less loss by the 
small particles that are broken off and distributed through 
the whey. As soon as the curd is cut, the operator should 
begin stirring it gentl}- with his arms; passing completely 
around the vat, several times in this way, before turning on 
the heat. The object for this is, to keep the cubes from 



202 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

matting together while the whey is separating from the 
curd. As this separation proceeds, the cubes shrink and 
gradually become firmer, until the heat can be applied, 
when the rapidity in stirring can be increased without 
causing any loss. As has been stated, the heat should be 
applied to the water under and around the vat and the 
temperature raised slowly at first, while stirring with the 
arms should be continued for several minutes. When the 
curd becomes sufficiently firm, so as not to break easily, the 
heat may be increased and a rake substituted for the arms 
in continuing the stirring. As the temperature rises and 
and the whey continues to separate from the curd, the 
granules become globular in form and continue to harden 
and shrink until they become about the size of peas. Right 
here is where the cheesemaker's judgement and general 
knowledge of his work must be brought into play, that he 
may know when the process of cooking should cease and at 
what temperature the heat should be withdrawn. Ordinarily, 
the temperature for full cream cheese should not be below 
one hundred, nor above one hundred and four degrees, 
depending somewhat on the season of the year, the time 
allowed for curing, and the condition of the milk as regards 
taint, gas, etc. The time devoted to stirring and heating 
the curd to the required temperature should be, under 
normal conditions, from fifty 'minutes to one hour. After 
the cooking is completed, the hot water under the curd 
should be withdrawn or cooled to a temparature correspond- 
ing to the whey in the vat, by running cold water into it so 
that the temperature of the curd will not rise above the 
required limit. The curd should be allowed to remain 
in the whey until it has developed enough acid to string 
about one-fourth of an inch when tried on a hot iron. This 
development of acid should be reached in from one hour to 
an hour and thirty minutes after the cooking or scalding 



Cheeseniaking. 203 

has been completed. If more time is required to develop 
the acid, the milk should be ripened a little more before the 
rennet is put in. While the curd is lying in the whey it 
should be broken up occasionally with the hands, to insure 
the maintenance of a uniform temperature throughout the 
mass. 

MATTING THE CURD. 

If a homogeneous development of required conditions is 
being realized, it will be observed that when one-fourth of 
an inch of acid shows on the hot iron, the curd granules will 
have shrunk until nearly all the whey has been expelled 
from them, and they will appear firm and elastic to the 
touch. When these two conditions apppear simultaneously, 
it indicates very satisfactory results up to this point. The 
curd should now be pushed back, until it forms an even 
layer in 'the rear half of the vat, when the whey should be 
drawn at once. After the whey has run off, a channel 
about one foot in width should be cut through the center of 
the curd lengthwise of the vat, the curd removed being 
evenly distributed over that remaining on either side. After 
draining a few minutes, the strips of curd along each side of 
the vat should be cut into blocks about one foot wide, care 
being taken to have them of uniform width, to facilitate 
piling. These blocks should then be turned over and 
allowed to lay until the granules are well knit together; 
after which the process of matting should begin. In mat- 
ting, begin by putting two blocks one on another, then 
three, and so on, increasing the number of blocks in each 
pile as the curd expands and becomes thinner, until all the 
blocks are put in a single pile. When this is accomplished, 
cut the pile directly through the center, and repile the 
blocks; being careful to place in the center, the edges that 
have been previously on the outside. The object for doing 
this being, to give to all parts of the curd the same pressure, 



204 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

that a uniform thinning of the blocks may be obtained, and 
also to maintain an even temperature. As the curd con- 
tinues to spread out over the bottom of the vat it should be 
cut again in the opposite direction from that in which it was 
first cut. This, it will be observed, divides each original 
block into quarters, and enables the person doing the 
matting to turn all the original outside edges to the center 
of the pile. If the curd becomes very thin, as is likely to be 
the case when all the cream is retained in the milk, the 
blocks, which have now become thin sheets of curd may be 
folded; alwa5^s observing to put the thicker edges to the 
center when repiling. Care should be taken not to expose 
the curd to a draught while matting it; as it drys and dis- 
colors the surface, and is likely to lower the temperature 
below the point desired. The matter of temperature should 
not be disregarded; as an uneven degree of heat in different 
parts of the mat will cause like variations in the degree of 
acid developed. A temperature of at least seventy degrees 
should be maintained in the cheese room. 

WHY CURD IS MATTED. 

In the early days of cheese production the matting or 
Cheddar system of making was not practiced. The curd was 
never out of the granular form until it was salted and put 
to press. The curd was dipped from the vat into a shallow 
sink, having a perforated bottom, and after stirring briefly, 
that the whey might drain from it, it was salted and at once 
put into the hoops, and to press. It will be seen that the 
curd lying in the whey during the whole process of acid 
development, was excluded from the air, and any unfavor- 
able organisms that might have been present in the milk 
were almost certain to be retained in the cheese. Pure air 
is the inveterate enemy of all objectional forms of bacterial 
life and its free circulation through the curd, during the 



Cheesemaking. 205 

♦ 

process of matting, has a beneficial effect in getting rid of 
unfavorable germs. Another advantage gained by matting 
is, a more complete expulsion of the whe)^ is secured. Per- 
fect flavor cannot be developed in a whey-soaked cheese; 
therefore, the more free the curd is from whey, the more 
favorable the conditions for obtaining fine flavor. When 
pin-holes are present in the curd they cannot be gotten rid 
of in any other way than by matting. 

DEVELOPMENT OF ACID. 

The requisite degree of acid to develop in the curd 
before salting, varies according to existing conditions. 
What would be too much at one season of the year, might 
be too little at another. In the spring and early sunimer, 
when pastures are green, more acid should be run than 
during the later months. The condition of the milk must 
also be taken into account in developing acid. If the milk 
is fairly good, less acid will be required than when it is 
badly tainted, and the curd is gassy and full of pin-holes. 
To determine just the degree of acid required, the judgment 
and experience of the cheesemaker must be exercised, as it 
is impossible to formulate a standard that will be exactly 
suited to all conditions. Where milk is normalh' pure, the 
acid developed in making full cream cheese should vary 
from about an inch and one-half in the late spring and early 
summer months, to an inch later in the season, when the 
pastures are drier and more matured, down, to perhaps half 
an inch in the winter, if onh' dry feed is given to the cows. 
There are several methods employed whereby the degree of 
acid development in the curd is determined; the most 
reliable of which is the hot iron test. This is the method 
referred to above where the length of acid drawn is men- 
tioned. The process of making the test is simple: An iron 
is heated nearly to the point when it begins to turn red; a 



206 



Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



small piece of curd is taken and the whey expelled from it 
by squeezing it in the hand. It is then brought in contact 
with the iron for a moment, when it is slowly withdrawn; 
if acid is present, the curd will adhere to the iron and when 
the piece held in the hand is withdrawn, it will string out 
in fine, silk-like threads. The length to which the threads 
can be drawn before breaking, indicates the degree of acid 
developed in the curd. Another method is, in noting the 
smoooth, glossy appearance, and the grain of the curd. 
When considerable acid is presest the curd will not tear, but 
will string apart, revealing a grain very similar to that noted 
in boiled corned beef. The acid is also noted by the appear- 
ance of fat on the surface of the curd. If, by squeezing a small 

piece, grease adheres to 
the hand, it indicates the 
presence of acid in con- 
siderable quantity. As it 
is seldom any two curds 
develop exactly alike, 
the eflficient cheesemaker 
will carefully note all 
these factors, and will 
be governed by those 
CURD MILL. which experience has 

shown to be indicative of the conditions desired. 




SALTING AND PRESSING. 

When]^the acid development desired has been reached, 
the curd "should at once be cut, salted and put to press. If 
convenient, it is preferable to have the curd mill attached to 
a sink, having a perforated bottom, where the curd should 
be cut and salted. Such a sink affords better facilities for 
getting rid of the whey that is released from the curd by 
the process of cutting. Satisfactory results, however, can 



Cheeseniaking. 



TffJ 



be obtained by cutting and salting in the vat. When the 
vat is used, the curd should be ditched through the center 
after it is cut, and time given for the whey to drain out. It 
should then be thoroughly aerated by stirring it briskly for 
several minutes; after which it should be rinsed, by pouring 
two or three pails of water, from which the chill has been 
taken, over it. Stir the water through it, after which drain 
again; then spread out evenly over the bottom of the vat and 
and add the salt. The 
quantity of salt re- 
quired varies with the 
season of the year. 
Too much salt has a 
tendency to harden 
the cheese, and too 
little may result in 
giving to it a sweet, or 
fruity flavor. In the 
summer, three pounds 
of salt to one hundred 
pounds of curd is about the right proportion; later in the 
season the amount of salt used may be reduced to two and 
one-half pounds. A more uniform distribution of the salt 
will be obtained, if only a part of it is sprinkled over the 
curd at a time; then, after stirring this in, add the rest and 
stir again. After the salting is completed the curd should 
be allowed to lie a few minutes, before putting it into the 
hoops, in order that all the salt may dissolve and enter the 
curd, before it is subjected to pressure. When this is 
accomplished and the curd is put into the press, care should 
be taken not to press too hard at first. Tighten the screw 
until the whey starts, then wait a short time for the curd to 
compress, then tighten again; repeat this process, at 
intervals, until the screw is perfectly tight. The cheese 




CHEESE HOOP AND FOLLOWER. 



208 



CoininoH-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 



should remain in the press at least an hour, or until the 
curd is thoroughly compact, before they are bandaged. In 
doing this work, be sure no wrinkles are left in the bandage, 
as their presence detracts very much from the appearance of 
the cheese. Cut the bandages of sufficient depth to allow 
about an inch, but no more, to turn over on the ends of the 
cheese. Keep the head cloths soft and flexible, so as to 
insure a perfect closing; but do not leave them on the cheese 
after they are taken to the curing room. A better way is, 
to put circles on under the head cloths which should be 




GANG CHEESE PRESS. 

allowed to remain on the cheese. After adjusting the 
bandages, the cheese should be returned to the press and 
allowed to remain from fourteen to sixteen hours, when 
they will be ready for the curing room. 

COLORING CHEESE. 

In the foregoing description as to how cheese is made 
the question of color has not been mentioned. This factor 
was omitted as the directions given are for making full 
cream cheese, and in its production the use of coloring is 
not usually considered necessary; however, if it is desired 



Cheeseniaking. 209 

to use it the following proportions may be observed: Assum- 
ing the color used to be of medium strength, if a deep color 
is desired, about one fluid ounce to each thousand pounds 
of milk should be used. If, however, the milk is largely 
from cows recently freshened, or is produced from pasture 
feed, a smaller quantity will answer the purpose. A richer 
tinge is given to white cheese by putting half an ounce of 
color into each vat of milk. 

MAKING SKIM CHEESE. 

The foregoing directions are for making full cream 
cheese, and would have to be materially modified in the 
production of skims. While the making of skim cheese can 
not be recommended, so long as it is manufactured it is essen- 
tial for the cheesemaker to know how to make it. Very 
little full cream cheese is made during the winter months, 
but a great deal of skim cheese is, and, in order for the 
cheesemaker to obtain employment at his trade the year 
round, he must be able to make skims as well as full 
creams. Perhaps when the stanch friends of the dairy 
industry become thoroughly awakened to a realization of 
the benefits that would certainly accrue to the milk 
producer, the manufacturer and consumer, if skim cheese 
was relegated to the realms of memory, they may devise 
means by which its overthrow will be effected. When that 
day arrives, no cheesemaker will be anxious to have it 
known that he is versed in the art of skim cheeseniaking; 
but until then he will have to yield to expediency and 
continue to put forth his best efforts in making it. The first 
thing required of a skim cheesemaker is, to be able to 
produce a cheese containing the least amount of fat possible, 
and have it appear in texture at least, like a full cream. If 
he cannot do this, the manufacturer will have no use 
for him. Consequently, he is kept busy devising means 



210 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

whereby this end can be attained; for, if he succeeds in 
giving a fine texture to cheese containing one and a half 
per cent of fat, the chances are, he will be asked to produce 
it in cheese containing one per cent of fat; and so on down 
to the limit of possibility. It is easy to understand then, 
that his position admits of neither mental nor phj^sical 
inactivity. He has constantly to contend with obstacles 
that never confront the maker of full cream cheese. The 
latter has access to schools, established and supported by 
the state, where expert instructors point out to him the 
scientific relation of all factors entering into his business. 
He is then provided with the necessary material for the 
acquirement of desired results, which he has only to com- 
bine in harmonious relation to achieve success. Not so with 
the skim cheesemaker. There are no schools established for 
his benefit, nor is there a standard built up, by scientific 
experiment, to guide him in his work. He is compelled 
therefore, to work out his own salvation as best he can. He 
must make a cheese "that will pass," without having the 
ingredients necessary for its construction. He must main- 
tain the appearance without the substance. Realizing then, 
that the employe is in no way responsible for the components 
of the article he makes, any assistance afforded him in the 
accomplishment of his work is justifiable. Hence the follow- 
ing directions for making skim cheese: 

RIPENING THE MILK. 

The following directions are for making cheese from 
milk containing but one per cent of fat. If the milk 
received is perfectlj^ sweet and untainted, add about the 
same quantity of starter as in making full creams, if 
clabbered milk is used; but if fresh buttermilk is used — 
which is preferable in skim cheese, add about ten per cent 
of starter. Heat the milk to about eighty-six degrees, and 



Cheeseinaking. 211 

allow it to ripen. In making skim cheese the milk should 
be ripened considerably lower than it is for full creams; as 
on this factor largely depends the texture obtained. For 
example: where milk for full cream cheese should be ripened 
to, we will say, ten seconds, by the rennet test, for skims it 
should be ripened to six or seven seconds. Of course the 
degree of ripening required will vary, according to the 
condition of the milk. What you want to obtain is such a 
degree of ripening as will cause the curd to show about 
one-fourth of an inch of acid, immediately after the scalding 
is completed. * 

SETTING THE MII,K. 
When the milk is suflficiently ripened, heat at once to 
the temperature required for scalding, which is usually from 
one hundred to one hundred and two degrees. After which, 
add the rennet as in the case of full creams, using about 
five fluid ounces of rennet to each one thousand pounds of 
milk. When properly coagulated, cut the curd both ways 
of the vat wnth the perpendicular knife, and stir at once 
with the rake. 

COOKING THE CURD. 

The quaHty most desired in making this cheese is 
texture; and a quick, high cook is the most satisfactory. 
Therefore, as the milk is heated to the highest temperature 
required, before the rennet is added, brisk stirring is 
necessary to prevent the curd from matting together. To 
insure this, it is advisable to have two persons stir the vat. 
Stir the curd for from eighteen to twenty minutes, when it 
should be pushed to the rear end of the vat and the whey 
drawn at once. As has been stated, the curd, at this time 
should draw about one fourth of an inch of acid on the hot 
iron. Employ the same methods in draining, blocking and 
matting as with full creams; only the work must be done 



212 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

very briskly, as the acid is developing rapidly, and it is 
desirable to expel the whey from the curd as soon as 
possible. The same means that are employed in determin- 
ing the acid development in full cream curds should be 
applied to the skims, excepting, in the latter, a higher 
degree of acid is required. Where an inch and a half is 
drawn, when full cream cheese is made, at least two and a 
half inches is required in making skims, maintaining about 
the same relative difference throughout the year. When 
the required acid is obtained, cut the curd as in making 
full creams. 

PREPARING THE CURD FOR THE HOOPS. 

After the curd has been run through the mill, it should 
be spread out over the bottom of the vat and submersed 
with cold water, stirring it all the time to avoid matting. 
Do not leave the water on the curd too long; often all that 
is required is to cover the curd, then run off immediately; 
as too much soaking will render the cheese waxy. After 
draining off the water, spread out the curd and salt as 
before directed, using from two to two and one-half 
pounds of salt to each one hundred pounds of curd. Ivet 
the curd lie for at least ten minutes after salting before 
falling the hoops, and employ the same methods in pressing 
and bandaging as before given. In coloring, use one fluid 
ounce of color to each one thousand pounds of milk, when 
a deep color is desired. If you are making white cheese 
put about three-fourths of an ounce of color in each vat to 
remove the blue tinge from the milk. In making skim 
cheese, the secret of success is in getting the required cook 
in as brief a time as possible, that the curd may be gotten 
out of the whey before becoming to hard. This is also one 
reason for ripening the milk to such a degree of acidity 
before setting; in order that the acid may have a good start 
when the cooking is completed. When the milk is in normal 



Cheesemaking. 213 

condition, not over one hour and forty or fifty minutes 
should elapse from the time the rennet is put into it, until 
the curd is salted. 

FLOATING CURDS. 

It sometimes occurs, both in making full cream and 
skim cheese that the milk is so badly tainted that the curd 
rises to the top of the whey, during the process, or soon 
after the cooking is completed; when this happens, it is 
called a floating curd. The cause for this is the presence of 
gas in the curd, rendering it lighter than the surrounding 
whey; consequently, it rises to the surface. The better way 
to proceed when this occurs, is to get the whey off the curd 
as soon as possible. When making full creams, and the 
condition of the milk is known before it is set, ripen 
considerabl}' lower than when the milk is in good condition. 
If you are ripening the latter to ten seconds by the rennet 
test, ripen the tainted milk to six or seven seconds. In 
cooking, run the temperature from two to four degrees 
higher than with normal milk, that the same shrinkage of 
the curd may be obtained in a much shorter time. For 
example: If the temperature at which 3'ou usually scald 
milk that is in good condition, is one hundred degrees, when 
the milk is tainted increase it to one hundred and two, four, 
or even one hundred and six degrees. Draw the whey as 
soon as possible, and mat in the usual way. If the curd is 
full of pin-holes, as it undoubtedly will be, it should be kept 
warm, by covering the vat with a canvas, and turning steam 
into it. If the pin-holes are large and the curd spongj^ it 
indicates the presence of bacteria which have developed 
sufficient gas to float the curd. Continue to develop acid 
until the holes, which at first were round, become oblong in 
shape; this indicates that the acid has expelled the gas from 
the cells in the curd. It should not be put through the curd 



214 Coininon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

mill and aerated until the putrefactive smell is superceded 
by an acid odor; after which rinse well with luke-warm 
water, drain, salt and put to press in the usual way. All 
curds having pin-holes do not float. Some of the worst 
impurities in milk are indicated by small, almost impercept- 
ible pin-holes, in an apparently firm curd. The best, and 
only really effectual remedy, when pin-holes are present, is 
to search out the cause and remove it; for, though we may 
succeed in getting rid of their presence in the curd, the 
flavor of the cheese is irrevocably impaired. An experienced 
cheesemaker can tell, by the peculiar odor given off by the 
milk when it is heated, whether or no pin-holes will develop 
in the curd made from it. Thus, by heating samples of the 
milk suspected, he may be enabled to locate their source, 
and by causing a change in conditions, succeed in removing 
them. To do this, take a pint Mason fruit jar and fill it 
half full with the suspected milk; then put on the cover 
and place the jar in water heated to about one hundred and 
four degrees. After the milk becomes heated, shake the 
jar slightly, remove the cover, and smell the milk. If the 
pin-hole producing bacteria are present, the fact will at once 
be revealed to the experienced cheesemaker, by the peculiar 
odor given off. The "Wisconsin curd test" is the more 
reliable method for the inexperienced operator to adopt; but 
for the cheesemaker who is handling the same milk ever}^ 
day, the test given above is equally as reliable, and is much 
easier and more quickly accomplished. 

MOTTLES IN CHEESE. 

Mottles sometimes appear in cheese as well as in butter. 
They are usually caused by whey collecting in depressions 
in the curd while b^ing in the pile, during the process of 
matting. The whej^ destroys the color in spots, giving the 
cheese a mottled appearance. When matting curd, it should 



Cheeseinaking. 215 

be handled almost continuously during the first thirty or 
fort}^ minutes, or until nearly all the whey is expelled; by 
pursuing this course the danger of having mottled cheese is 
greatly lessened. The writer's experience has led him to 
believe an uneven cook is also a source of mottles. In 
cooking, especially at a high temperature, it sometimes 
occurs that the curd is not properly broken up; a portion of 
it being left in chunks varying in size. When this condition 
exists it is impossible to secure an even scald. When the 
smaller granules are sufhcientl}^ cooked, the center of the 
larger chunks will still be comparativel}^ raw; in consequence 
of which, the whey is not expelled by shrinkage and mottles 
are produced. This, however, is only one of many ill effects 
resulting from uneven cooking. 

YIELD OBTAINED. 

A factor of much importance in cheese production is the 
yield obtained. This point has already been briefly referred 
to under another heading, but there are other conditions " 
affecting the yield, that have not been mentioned. The 
constituents of milk that enter into cheese are chiefly casein 
and fat, and an 3^ condition that causes a loss of either 
diminishes the yield. If the curd is cut before a firm setting 
is obtained, a loss results from the small particles of curd 
that are broken off and carried away with the whey. 
Ivosses resulting from harsh stirring have been considered 
and need not be referred to again. A loss of fat is often 
caused by running too much acid. The tendency of acid, 
beyond a certain point of development, is to expel the fat 
from the curd, and, when too much is run considerable fat 
is lost during the process of pressing; this not only effects 
the yield but the quality of the cheese. Special care should 
be exercised in this direction, as it is estimated that, even 
whep ordinary precautions are observed, in four per cent 



216 Common Sense Ideas forDairyvien. 

milk, nearly four-tenths of one per cent of fat runs off with 
the whey. While all unnecessary waste should be avoided, 
do not strive to obtain an abnormally large jdeld, for this 
cannot be affected without injury to the quality. The 
custom prevails, in some sections of the country where full 
cream cheese is produced, of graduating the cheesemaker's 
wages according to the yield he obtains. The required 
yield is often so high that no cheesemaker can reach it, 
without resorting to methods that materially detract from 
the quality of the cheese he produces, factory proprietors 
often demanding as high as twelve pounds of cheese to each 
one hundred pounds of milk, When the fact is considered 
that the standards established by several of the states only 
require milk to contain twelve per cent of solids, it is evident 
the states ask too little or the factorymen too much. When 
cheese is made, the sugar and most of the albumen is left in 
the whey; therefore, to procure a cheese yield so ngar the 
combined weight of all the solids in the milk, it is evident 
some foreign substance must be introduced, to take the 
place of these ingredients. The chief element depended 
upon to accomplish this purpose is moisture. Therefore the 
cheesemaker, in order to get the required jaeld, retains as 
much moisture in his cheese as possible. To do this, he has 
to modify his cook so as not to shrink the curd until all the 
whej^ is expelled; as the whey he leaves in the cheese is the 
element depended upon to help him out in the weight. The 
result of all this is, the cheese he makes is not as good as it 
ought to be, and the price for which it sells is proportion- 
ately reduced. It is difhcult to see where any advantage is 
gained by pursuing this course. While every cheesemaker 
should be required to obtain as high a yield from the milk 
he makes into cheese as is compatible with the right methods 
of making, to ask more of him, is to place a premium on 
perverted ability or actual incompetency; for almost any 



Cheeseinaking. 217 

kind of a cheesemaker can produce a whej^-soaked article, 
but it requires ability and real merit to make a rich, fine 
flavored cheese. The best and most economical rule to 
adopt is, to .engage only cheesemakers who are competent 
to do the work as it should be done; requiring them to 
obtain no higher yield than is consistent with a careful and 
correct system of making. The question of yield, and other 
conditions besides those already mentioned that affect it, will 
be further considered under another heading at the close of 

this chapter. 

CURING CHEESE. 

It has been said, cultivated taste is required to like 
strong, well-cured cheese; but this is the kind of cheese that 
is the most nourishing and the easiest to digest. New 
cheese, having neither strength nor flavor is the hardest. 
In the production of good cheese that is cheese that is 
palatable, nourishing and digestible — as much depends 
upon the curing as upon the ingredients that enter into its 
composition. The American manufacturer is frequently in 
too great a hurry to reahze returns on his investment, to 
allow time for the cheese he makes to cure. To cure cheese 
properly, requires unremitting care and a good deal of time. 
It may be said of most of the skim cheese that is made that 
it is not cured at all, as it is generally offered for sale on the 
market within from ten daj^s to two weeks after it is taken 
from the press. Such cheese is neither wholesome nor 
digestible, and possesses no quality that recommends it as a 
desirable article of food. A writer on this subject says, 
"In connection with the curing of cheese there is an 
important dietary principle to consider, and it is a point not 
usually considered by epicures. When we eat cheese only 
partly cured, we take into our sj^stem bacteria in the process 
of fermentation, which are sure to do more or less injury to 
the stomach. They retard digestion, and tend to counteract 



218 Co7nnion-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

all the good qualities of the cheese. People who say that 
cheese does not agree with them, have special reference to 
poorly cured cheese, and they may not know that properly 
cured cheese would not only be good for them but easily 
digested as well. Cheese, therefore, comes late in the meal 
after the heavy meats and deserts, for a purpose. Good 
imported cheese or home-made cheese that has been 
thoroughly cured helps digestion. This is commonly 
believed by good diners-out, and the}^ love to think 
so because of their acquired taste for the article. If 
the cheese is of the tight sort it does promote digestion, 
for the bacteria in it are all productive of the right 
kind of fermentation, which is similar to that which takes 
place in our stomach when food is introduced. Cheese 
of the right kind is partly digested food, and the digestion 
is generally in slow progress all the time. When acted upon 
by the warmth and moisture of the stomach, the bacteria in 
the cheese immediately multiply and renew their activity 
thereby producing a digestive effect that helps along the 
assimilation of all our food. We need good cheese with a 
good meal; in fact we need to eat more of it, for it is 
nourishing and wholesome. The old idea that cheese is 
difficult of digestion, and bad for us, applies to only poorly 
and partly cured cheap cheese. Use the right kind of cheese 
and there will be no deleterious results. It is well known 
that Englishmen are great lovers of cheese; but they do not 
want the new, uncured article. They eat cheese in the old 
stage, and it has to be cured a long time before it takes on 
the fine flavor they desire. With them, the use of cheese 
as an article of food is largely substituted for meat, which 
they consider not only more wholesome but cheaper than the 
latter. As a result, when the Englishman buys cheese he 
gets a large wedge of it, and he eats it with his bread in 
almost equal proportions. When the American buys cheese 



Cheeseinaking. 219 

he gets one or two pounds and eats an occasional dice-like 
cube of it with his pie. The reason for this difference is, 
the Englishman insists on having his cheese well cured ; as 
a consequence it is fine flavored, palatable and nutritious. 
The American, on the contrary, is often compelled to accept, 
if he has any cheese at all, of the whey-soaked, under-cured 
article, which possesses no feature belonging to really good 
cheese except the name and shape. No wonder he buys and 
eats but little of it. If he could get good, wholesome, well- 
cured cheese, he would soon learn to consume as large a 
quantity of it, and with as much relish, as does his English 
cousin. Good, fine flavored cheese used to be made by the 
wives and daughters of American farmers. They knew 
little of the scientific methods now employed in cheesemak- 
ing but the time and attention thej^ gave to its curing 
largely made up for any errors they may have committed in 
the previovs stages of its production. We are told the 
Swiss take milk that is inferior to the milk found on the 
average American farm, and, by deft manipulation, convert 
it into the fine flavored and nutritious Swiss cheese that is 
so justly celebrated. This superb development is the result 
of perfect curing. They do it, not by secret processes, but 
after methods that are well known. The first important 
factor in the process is time, whereby a chemical change or 
development goes on in the cheese analogous to that of 
digestion in the human stomach. The curing is usually 
done in caves, where the cheese is turned and scraped many 
times a day. The air is kept dry and at a uniform temper- 
ature; by this means the desired forms of bacteria are 
constantly kept at the proper degree of development. The 
curing room found in the average modern cheese factory is 
wholly unsuited to the purpose for which it is designed. It 
is usually located in the second story of the factory, where 
the heat of summer and the cold of winter are each, in their 



220 Co^nmon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

turn, sure to penetrate; thereby rendering it next to 
impossible to maintain a uniform temperature. It is also, 
because of its location, often exposed to contamination from 
soot from the smoke-stack, and other forms of dust and dirt. 
It would be more productive of satisfactory results if the 
curing room were located on the ground, and, if possible, 
built partially under ground, say from one third to one half 
its height from floor to ceiling. It should be protected, as 
far as possible, from dust and unfavorable odors; it should 
also be provided with convenient facilities for ventilating and 
heating. The room should be darkened and the shelves, on 
which the cheese are placed, should be kept clean. A 
temperature of from sixty-five to seventy degrees should 
be maintained in the room at all times, that the develop- 
ment of the cheese may be neither hastened nor retarded. 
The cheese should be turned at least once a day, and 
thoroughly rubbed with the hand. It is customary, in some 
factories, to leave the head cloths on the cheese until near 
the time they are ready to ship. The utility of this 
practice is doubtful. It is better to remove the cloths when 
the cheese are put on the shelves, and at once cover the 
faces with cheese dressing, applied very hot; smooth the 
dressing over the surface of the cheese with the hand and not 
with the cloth. At the first application, sufiicient dressing 
should be used to insure a smooth, even surface; after 
which, the cloth used should only be dampened in the hot 
dressing, and passed over the face of the cheese, when they 
should again be thoroughly rubbed with the hand. Never 
allow mould to collect on the bandage of the cheese. At 
first appearance of mould go over the sides of the cheese 
with a cloth that has been previously dampened — not wet — 
with water. The air in the curing room should never be 
damp, neither should it be too dry. To avoid this latter 
condition, keep a tub of water in the center of the room, 



Cheesemaking. 221 

the evaporation from which renders the surrounding 
atmosphere sufficiently moist. When the atmosphere is 
humid as it often is after showers, during the summer 
months, exclude it from the curing room as far as possible, 
as its presence is a fruitful source of mould. Never allow 
the faces of the cheese to become coated or discolored by the 
accumulation of dressing on the surface. This condition 
can be avoided by being careful not to apply too much 
dressing to the cheese, and by keeping the shelves well 
cleaned. If, from. any cause, the cheese do become in this 
condition, scrape them thoroughly, being careful not to 
injure the rind; after which apply a small quantity of dress- 
ing and rub again with the hand. It is a good practice to 
turn the cheese, while new, twice every day, and never turn 
a cheese without thoroughl}^ rubbing both faces. We refer 
to rubbing thus often, that sufficient emphasis may be given 
to its importance as a factor in right curing. When rubbing 
the cheese always use the hand. We acknowledge it is less 
troublesome, and requires less time to use a cloth in per- 
forming this labor; but the result is not nearly as satisfactory. 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

Be careful not to allow the dressing to drip on the sides 
of the cheese, but keep the bandages clean as it adds much 
to the appearance of the stock and materially aids in 
its sale. 

Never leave the cheese exposed to a current of air, as 
it is liable to check them. 

In pressing, be sure to keep the cheese straight, as a 
crooked cheese is an abomination to the eye of the pur- 
chaser; also make them uniforn in size. 

Do not plug all the cheese in the curing room to ascer- 
tain their quality. Never plug but one cheese from the 
same vat, and that one no oftener than is absolutely 



222 Cotninon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

necessary to ascertain its stage of development. Do not 
insert the trier through the bandage of the cheese, but draw 
the phig from the face, where it can be returned and all 
openings closed by the application of a small quantity of 
dressing. 

When boxing, cut the rim of the box a little lower than 
the top of the cheese, and when two cheese are put into the 
same box place two scale-boards between them. 

MAKING BRICK CHEESE. 

Do not attempt to make brick cheese from gass}- or 
badly tainted milk. Be sure that the milk is sweet and 
free from infection, as in the production of brick cheese, 
little opportunit}^ is afforded for counteracting these unfav- 
orable conditions. Use about the same quantity of starter as 
with Cheddar cheese, and heat and ripen in the same way. 
Be sure to obtain a firm and uniform coagulation of the milk 
before cuUing, and observe the necessary care in stirring 
the curd with the arms and with the rake. Cook to a tem- 
perature of about one hundred degrees, and run the whey as 
soon as possible after the process of cooking is completed. 
Be careful not to run too much acid. This is a general fault, 
especially with makers who are only occasionally required 
to make brick cheese. When the condition of the milk is 
normal— and no other kind should be used in making brick 
cheese — run only about one-fourth of an inch of acid before 
putting the curd into the moulds. In running off the whey 
keep the curd well broken up bj^ stirring it constantly with 
the arms. Some makers run off a part of the whey, then 
run cold water into the vat until the temperature is reduced 
to about eighty degrees, before putting the curd into the 
moulds. While this practice will aid materially in prevent- 
ing the curd from matting, there are reasons why it should 
not be recommended. The better way, is to run off the 



Cheesetnaking. 223 

whey until the curd appears above the surface, then dip at 
once into the moulds. Do not make the cheese too large; 
from four and one-half to five pounds being heavy enough. 
If made too deep, the salt will not penetrate through the 
cheese and the flavor will be impaired. In pressing, use two 
fire-bricks on each mould, and turn the cheese, at least twice 
after being put to press before taking them up, in order that 
a close rind may be formed on both faces. When the cheese 
are taken from the moulds in the morning, dip each one 
into a pail of luke-warm water, then rub well with cheese 
salt, being careful to rub the ends and sides as thoroughlj^ 
as the faces; after which pile them, two deep, on the salting 
table. In the afternoon rub and salt again, but do not dip 
them again into the water as sufficient moisture will be on 
the cheese to cause the salt to adhere to the surface. The 
cheese should be salted and rubbed in this manner for at 
least fiv^e times — twice a da}' — before being placed on the 
the shelves. After the last two saltings, they may be piled 
three or four deep on the salting table. When ready for 
the curing room, wash the salt from the surface of the 
cheese, with luke-warm water; then place them on the shelf 
on their edges with the faces together. Turn and rub well 
every day, and if inclined to check moisten the surface by 
rubbing them over with a cloth, dampened in brine. Be 
sure to keep the temperature of the room as near sixty-five 
degrees as possible. 

It seems as though brick cheese would be the most 
desirable kind to make on the farm for the following 
reasons: It is small, thereby enabHng the farmer to make 
all of his milk into cheese every day, be it much or little. 
The outfit for making it would be less expensive than for 
making many other kinds of cheese; as it would not be 
necessary to purchase either hoops or press. The yield is 
usually better, and if good, the price it brings is generally 



224 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

higher than that received for many other kinds of cheese, 
and a home market can almost always be found for it. 

NECESSARY OUTFIT. 

For making brick cheese, the farmer would require the 
following outfit. 

One two-horse Ideal boiler. 

One two hundred gallon milk vat, with steam pipe con- 
necting it with the boiler. 

One horizontal curd knife and one perpendicular curd 
knife; also a curd pail, scoop and dipper. 

This is all the outfit he would have to buy, and its cost 
would not be far from sixty-five dollars. The salting table, 
press table, and moulds, he could make himself. The 
moulds should be made of half-inch planed boards six 
inches wide. Cut the sides and ends so the moulds when 
made, will measure about four and one-half inches by ten^ 
inches inside; the depth, of course, would be six inches. 
Joint the corners, nail or screw together, and 3^our moulds 
are made. Make the pressing table wide enough to accom- 
modate two moulds, standing end to end, and about ten 
feet long. Nail strips, extending about an inch and a half 
above the surface, along one end and both sides of the table. 
Slightly elevate the end of the t ib'e along which the strip is 
nailed, so as to cause the whey to run off at the other end, 
making the elevation as slight as possible, as too much of 
an incline will render the cheese crooked. Cover the table 
with gunny-sacking, drawing it taut, and tacking it along 
the edges. Beginning at the upper end, place the moulds, 
close together, in two rows down the table. Make covers 
that will just fit inside of the moulds, from the same 
material of which they are made, and provide two fire-bricks 
as a weight for each cheese, and your pressing outfit is 
complete. The table for salting will have to be considerably 



Cheese-making. 225 

larger than the press table, as it will have to accommodate 
three days' cheese at one time. If you have a cool dry 
cellar no better curing room could be provided. If a farmer 
desires to make what is commonly known as American 
cheese, the above outfit will have to be increased by the 
purchase of one two-screw standing cheese press, the neces- 
sary number of cheese-hoops of the size and kind desired, 
and one Harris curd-cutter. There is, no doubt, a large 
field for home made cheese as well as for butter, and the 
farmer who goes about its production in the right way will 
find the business remunerative. 

RENNET TEST. 

The rennet test is a process for determining the acidity 
of milk, by the time it requires a given quantity, heated to 
a certain temperature, to coagulate, when a given amount 
of rennet is added to it. It will readily be seen that any 
number of proportions may be used in obtaining the same 
result. The method of making the test, followed for years 
by the writer, is as follows: Take eight ounces of milk, 
heated to a temperature of eighty-six degrees and stir into 
it sixty minims or one fluid dram of rennet. Note the time 
in seconds, it takes for the milk to coagulate, and the result 
indicates the degree of acid development it has reached. Of 
course, experience in handling the milk is necessary that 
you may know just how much acid is required. For 
example: The writer found, that in making full cream 
cheese from fairly pure milk, the required degree of acid 
was reached when eight ounces of milk, heated to eighty- 
six degrees, would coagulate in ten seconds after sixty 
minims of rennet had been stirred into it. These are the 
proportions used in all the tests referred to in the preceeding 
pages of this chapter. 



226 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

HOW TO MAlCE THK TEST. 
Take a common pint tin cup ridged around the center, 
and fill it to the ridge with the milk to be tested. Fill a 
pan or basin with hot or cold water, according to whether 
the temperature of the sample is too high or too low; then 
holding the cup in the water, stir the milk with a thermom- 
eter until a temperature of eighty-six degrees is reached. 
Place one or more small splints of wood iii the milk, so that 
its rotary motion may the more readily be observed. Then 
stir into it sixty minims of rennet, that have previously been 
measured into a small graduate, and watch the splints. 
Count the time, in seconds, from, the time the rennet enters 
the milk, until the splints cease to turn and the acidity or 
ripeness of the milk is determined. A minim is about one 
drop; sixty minims is one dram. The process of making 
this test is simple; requiring, after a little practice, less time 
to make it than it does to explain the method. The benefits 
resulting from its use are many; as it enables the cheese- 
maker to know the exact condition of his milk at all times. 
This insures method and uniformity in his work from day 
to day, and enables him to maintain the degree of ripeness 
required in the milk he is handling, to insure the best 
flavor and texture in the cheese. 

RELATION OF FAT TO YIELD OF CHEESE- 

The Secretary of Agriculture, in discussing the question 
of Cheese production, brings out some very interesting facts 
regarding the influence of the fat content of milk, upon the 
yield of cheese, obtained. His deductions are based upon 
numerous experiments made along this line, by a large 
number of Kxpenment Stations throughout the country. 
Milk of varying richness, from skim milk to milk made 
abnormally rich by the addition of cream, has been used in 
these experiments, and the details of manufacture have been 



Cheesemaking. 227 

varied to include a very wide range of treatment of the 
milk, the rennet, the curd, and the green cheese. It is 
found that the proportion of fat in the milk lost during the 
process of manufacture varies considerably, but averages 
between seven and one-half and eight per cent, or about 
one-third of a pound of fat for each one hundred pounds of 
milk used. The loss is fully as small, if not smaller, than 
the losses sustained in buttermaking, even with the most 
approved appliances. In normal milk the loss seems to be 
independent of the percentage of fat in milk, that is, it is 
very nearly the same from normally rich milk and from 
poor milk. The variations in loss of fat are due, either to 
the condition of the milk, or to some special conditions 
employed in the manufacture. In the case of partially 
skimmed milk the proportion of fat lost is greater, and in 
the case of milk to which cream has been added the loss is 
less than from normal milk 

The loss of casein and albumen, or the cheesy con- 
stituents of the milk, do not appear \o be affected by the 
percentage of these constituents in the milk. It is prac- 
tically the same whether skim milk, normal milk, or milk 
to which cream has been added is used. It amounts to 
about twenty-four per cent of the entire amount contained 
in the milk, or about twelve and one-half ounces per 
hundred pounds of milk. As to the effect of the composition 
of the milk on the yield of cheese, investigation has shown 
the fat to be by far the most prominent factor in determin- 
ing the yield. In nearly all the experiments made the yield 
of cheese has been proportional to the percentage of fat in 
the milk, being higher with milk rich in fat. This holds 
true in the case of cheese made from partially skimmed 
milk, and from milk to which cream has been added. This 
is not entirely due to the additional amount of fat which the 
richer milk adds to the cheese, for it is found as a rule that 



228 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

more water is retained in the cheese when the milk is 
richer in fat. The fat appears, in most cases, to have con- 
siderable influence on all the milk constituents recovered in 
the cheese. Experiments have established the fact that, for 
every increased pound of fat in the cheese there is also from 
one-third to one pound more water, and about nine and one- 
half ounces more casein and albumen. This brings out in a 
striking manner the desirability of using milk rich in fat for 
cheesemaking, and indicates that rich milk is as desirable in 
cheesemaking as it is in buttermaking. It has proven that 
the so-called cheese cow, that is, the cow that is good for 
cheese production rather than for butter, does not exist, 
and that whenever a cow is found that is good for cheese- 
making purpuses, the milk of that cow is equally good for 
the mariufacture of butter; for, as a general thing, the 
fat in the milk exercises a greater influence upon the 
composition of the cheese than any other constituent of the 
milk. The fact then, is pretty well established that the 
amount of fat in the milk used for cheesemaking has very 
little effect on the loss of fat, except in the case of partially 
skimmed milk or milk to which cream has been added; but 
it affects the per cent of fat in the cheese as well as the 
proportion of other ingredients recovered in the cheese, and 
very materially affects the yield of cheese both from normal 
milk, skim milk, and milk to which cream has been added. 
The amount of casein and albumen in the milk, on the other 
hand, have no effect on the loss of these ingredients, no 
definite effect on the composition of the cheese, and only a 
slight effect on the yield of cheese. From these deductions 
therefore, there can be little doubt that the percentage of 
fat in milk is a good indication of its value for cheesemaking 
and may properly serve as the basis for paying for milk at 
the cheese factories as well as at the creameries. 



CKapter 6. 

CREAMERY BUIIvDING. 

One is often impressed by the total disregard for con- 
venience and general utility, both as to location and internal 
arrangement, that characterizes a large proportion of the 
<:reameries throughout the country. Many of them are 
little better than pine board shanties, erected at the least 
possible cost in money but at the expense of all convenience 
and fitness for buttermaking. 

The same genius that planned and built the school houses 
of early days seems to have been exercised in the construc- 
tion of many of our creameries; as the same want of 
adaptation to the purpose designed is the most noticeable 
feature in each instance. While some are small, others are 
great, cumbersome, two-story barns; their size all out of 
proportion with the needs of the community in which they 
are located. It appears as though the chief object in view 
in building them was to maintain as far as possible, a 
uniformity of magnificent distances between the different 
pieces of machinery that comprise their equipment. Unwise 
construction, however, is not their only fault. They are 
often located in places in no way adapted to the purpose for 
which they are intended. The necessity for adequate 
draining facihties, oile of the most important factors in 
creamery construction, is often disregarded; as is also the 
matter of convenience in receiving and handling the milk. 

An able writer on this subject says: "Good drainage 
is of the utmost importance in creamery construction, yet 
in many cases evidently the last thing thought of. The 
creamery should be located near some live stream, where 
the outlet of the drain can be placed under water, or the 

[229] 



230 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym.en. 

drain should be conducted not less than fifty rods from the 
building. The longer the drain the better. The drain may 
consist of glazed tile for the first fifteen rods from the 
creamery and be not less than fifteen inches in diameter, and 
for the ^ remainder common tile of the same size may be 
used." 

Good drainage is indispensible to the securing of satis- 
factory results in creamery work. If the slops from the 
creamery are permitted to sink into the ground under and 
around the building, the whole plant will soon become a 
veritable hot-bed of impurities. Bad odors and objectionable 
bacteria will invade every part of the building and its 
surroundings, rendering the production of first class butter 
impossible. In addition to water tight conveyors, perfect 
drainage necessitates the construction of the building upon 
ground that is slightly elevated above its surroundings, that 
ample fall may be obtained for carrying off the sewage. 

Next to perfect drainage is a plentiful supply of pure, 
cold water. It is a wise plan on selecting a location for a 
creamery to sink the well first, that you may be assured of 
an ample supply of good water before proceeding to the 
construction of the building. If the water is found to be of 
scant supply or of poor quality build the creamery at some 
other place. Do not allow any other advantage of location, 
however propitious it may be, to out-weigh this important 
deficiency. Pure, cold water is about as necessary to the 
making of good butter as is milk and cream; therefore never 
build a creamery where it cannot be obtained. Another 
point to consider is, however perfect may be the system of 
drainage, neglect no precaution in constructing the well so 
to keep the water free from all surface impurities. Remem- 
ber if pure water and perfect drainage are secured all other 
feat ures of the work of creamery construction will be easily 
c on trolled. 



Creamery Building. 231 

In writing on this subject Professor Erf of Urbana, 
Illinois, gives some most excellent suggestions in relation 
to how a creamery should be built and the kind and quality 
of material that should be used in its construction, which 
we quote in part. 

DIMENSIONS. 

"The dimensions of the creamery building depend on 
the amount of butter to be manufactured and somewhat on 
the arangement. A creamery handling the milk from 400 
to 600 cows should contain about 1,200 to 1,500 square feet 
of floor space, not including store and cool room. It is 
more desirable to have the plant in a compact form rather 
than to have it spread over a large area for two reasons. 
First, it saves labor in keeping a creamery clean; and 
second, it teaches the operator to put utensils back in place 
after using them, as it is necessary for him to have the 
required room." 

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING. 

"The building should be placed on soHd foundation 
walls, rather than upon pins. This, besides keeping the 
building warm in winter and cool in summer, adds decidedly 
to the appearance. The foundation should not be less than 
one foot in depth and eighteen inches iii width. This must 
be grouted well with crushed stone and cement. Upon this 
foundation a wall can be built not less than twenty-four 
inches high. And the width depends on the material used. 
If common wall stone are used about fifteen to eighteen 
inches would be the proper width; if range stone eight 
inches; and if made of glazed hollow brick twelve inches 
would be ample in width. Sills may be of hemlock 6x6 or 
it may be a box sill made of 2x8 Norway pine. In case a 
wooden floor is wanted cross sills are necessary to support 
the joist. These cross sills should in turn be supported by 



232 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

eighteen inch square abutments, not more than six feet 
apart. Studding may be of yellow pine or hemlock, need 
never be more than 2x4 inches in size, and twelve or four- 
teen feet long according to the desired height of the building. 
Studding fourteen feet high make a more attractive building 
and, at the same time, gives more room for building the ice 
box higher in the refrigerator, increasing its capacity." 

CEMENT FLOOR. 

"If a cement floor is preferred it should be put down in 
the very best shape. A cheap cement floor is next to no 
floor in a creamery, A cement floor should be made as 
follows: First, fill it with small cobble or broken stone, 
then put on dry sand mixed with a little common cement, 
and pour on water and wash the mixture down among the 
stones so as to firmly imbed them. Then puddle on a 
mixture of common cement and sand, half and half, and 
apply it two inches thick. On top of this spread a thick 
coat from two to two and one-half inches of Portland cement 
and fine sand mixed half and half. L,et this harden thor- 
oughly and a good floor can be assured if the Portland 
cement is of the best kind. This makes a rather expensive 
floor, but one cannot afford to put a cheaper floor in a 
creamery in the line of cement. 

A WOOD FLOOR. 

"In putting down a wood floor one should see that the 
joist are of Norway pine or good white oak not less than 
2x8 inch size, laid full straight on sills sixteen inches from 
centers. The length of the joist should not exceed two 
feet without having a support. The flooring may be of 
good white oak or Georgia pine. If the very best white 
oak cannot be obtained, Georgia pine is to be preferred. 
The flooring should be well dressed and matched, one and a 
half to two inches in thickness and secretly spiked to each 
joist. The tongue and groove should be painted with white 



Creamery Building-. 233 

lead and when completed should be covered with a coat of 
boiled linseed oil applied hot and thoroughly brushed in. 
The refrigerator floor should be made the same except that 
the space underneath should be filled with cinders to the 
joist, leaving a dead air space between the cinders and 
flooring. The boiler room floor may be made of cement or 
of hard brick laid in cement." 

STUDDING AND RAFTERS. 

"The studding may be set sixteen inches apart from 
centers, toe-nailed to sill below and also firmly nailed to 
roof plate which is of the same material. Rafters can also 
be of the same material as the studding, but not less than 
2x5 inches size for a shingle, steel or galvanized roof, and 
2x6 if slate is used for roofing, depending somewhat on the 
width of the building. A shingle roof seems to give the 
best service for a creamery. It keeps the building cool in 
summer and warm in winter. As far as durability or being 
fire proof is concerned, a slate roof is far superior." 

SIDING AND CEIUNG. 

"Siding may be five-inch poplar lath, or pine drop 
siding, the lath being the cheaper. The building should be 
ceiled entirely on the inside with yellow pine ceiling except 
the boiler room, which should be lined with corrugated iron 
or made of brick. Two dead air spaces can be cheaply 
constructed on the entire building, by putting building 
paper up and down on the studding, nailing over this ^X2 
inch strips and ceil on strips. The paper must be secured 
at top and bottom so that a perfect dead air space is the 
result. Lath and plaster may be used as a substitute for 
paper but at a greater expense." 

THE DRAIN. 

"If a cement floor is used the floor should slant one 
fourth of an inch to every foot from all directions toward 



234 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

one point, the inlet to the underground drain; at which 
point a trap should connect; to prevent odors from the sewer 
from coming up into the factory. If a creamery is to be built 
with wood floors it is always best to use a gutter set into 
the floor from the drain. This can be constructed by plac-. 
img two joist about four inches apart and letting them 
extend the full length or width of the building. Cut the 
floor flush with the edge of each joist. Rabbit these ends 
one half inch on each side and paint with white lead, then 
lay in a coating of putty and form the gutter of galvanized 
iron, or preferably copper, so that it will set down in 
between the joist, and turn over where the floor is rabbited, 
nail into the floor, driving the nails close together, then 
give it another coat of white lead and putty again. The 
slant of a wood floor should be the same as that of a cement 
floor, and the gutter itself should also have the same slant 
toward the trap. 

THE REFRIGERATOR. 

"The refrigerator for a creamery handling three 
thousand to six thousand pounds of milk per day needs to 
be about ,8xio feet including a cold room. The refrigerator 
room proper should be at least six and one-half feet high 
and the ice box above as high as it can be made under the 
rafters, never less than six feet. Three dead air spaces are 
necessary for a refrigerator if the partitions are made of 
double boards with paper between. If made of paper alone 
five dead air spaces are necessary. The latter is the cheaper 
where simply the paper serves as the partitions, and fastened 
with ^X2 inch strips every sixteen inches. Care must be 
taken in securing the best building paper and see that it is 
not less than, thirty-two inches wide so as to fit the studding 
when placed sixteep inches apart. The inside should be 
ceiled and shellaced. The doors must be made the same as 



Creamery Building. 235 

walls, beveled and packed, with canvas at the edges. The 
ice box must be connected with the room below by flues 
constructed in the walls. These flues may be the spaces 
between the studs and joist. One flue must receive the 
warm air at the ceiling in one side of the room and conduct 
it to the top of the ice box while the cold air flue on the 
opposite side extends down from the bottom of the ice box 
in all the spaces between the studs to within six inches of 
the floor, where it should enter the refrigerator room. These 
flues carry the air after it is cooled in the ice box to the 
room below. Thus a circulation is kept up by the air 
coming in contact with the ice where it is cooled, becomes 
heavy and returns by its own weight to the room below; at 
the same time it drives the warm air at the top of the 
refrigerator into the ice box ready to start circulating when 
cooled. A double circulation may be provided in this way, 
by converting all four sides into flues, making the refriger- 
ator more effectual. The air flues leaving the ice box near 
the bottom must be arranged so that no ice or water can 
enter them. The bottoms should be galvanized iron turned 
up three inches on all sides and have a drip pipe to carry 
off the water. The cold room should be tightly ceiled, 
and not connected with the ice box. In passing in and out 
of the refrigerator through the cold room, one of the two 
doors should always be closed in order to prevent the cold 
air from rushing out." 

ICE HOUSE. 
"It is generally necessary to have an ice house con- 
nected with the creamery. An ice house may be built of 
single or double walls, depending more or less on the ease 
and cheapness with which ice can be secured in winter. 
The dimensions of the ice house can easily be determined 
from a standard. A cubic foot of ice weighs fifty-five 
pounds and an average creamery should have an ice house 



236 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

of 150 tons capacity. It is generally advisable to have the; 
ice house connected with the creamery building." 

DOORS AND WINDOWS. 

"All the doors in a creamery should be not less than 
three feet eight inches wide and six feet eight inches high, 
except the door to the receiving room, one door in the 
churn room, and a boiler room door, each of which should 
not be less than five feet in width. Windows should be 
large, each having not less than foiir 14x28 inch lights; and 
should be arranged so as to drop from above as well as 
below in order to secure a means for good ventilation. . 
Creameries should be provided with ventilators on the roof 
and passages connecting with the rooms below so as to carry 
off the heat and steam." 

BOILER AND ENGINE. 
"Not less than a fifteen horse power boiler should be 
put in a creamery. A large boiler saves fuel and labor. It 
should always be at least one-half greater capacity than the 
engine. The horizontal boiler is preferable to the upright 
style. If the boiler is to be bricked, care must be taken in 
setting it up. See that the foundation is at least two land 
one-half feet deep and grouted well. The furnace walls 
should not be less than sixteen inches thick, fire box lined 
with fire-brick and stayed with three sets of wall stays. 
The smoke stack should never be less than thirty feet in 
height to insure good draught. The engine should be set 
on a good solid foundation fastened with four anchor boats. 
The horizontal style is always preferable to the vertical. 
The size depends on the kind and amount of machinery to 
be used. It should be as simple as possible. 

PUMPS. 

"Never purchase a horizontal steam or other surface 
cyHnder pump, without measuring or knowing the height to- 



Creatnery Building. 1Z1 

which the column of water is to be lifted. The limit of 
suction for an ordinary pump is practically twenty-seven 
feet." 

SKIM MILK TANK. 

"The skim milk tank should be lined or made of 
galvanized iron and be placed high enough for a wagon to 
drive under and draw off the milk by simply opening a 
valve. The ground around this place should be paved in 
such a way that the drip will run off into the sewer. It is 
necessary to flush this place every day, for sanitary pur- 
poses. The milk can be elevated by means of a pump or 
steam jet. If a check pump is used this is not necessary. 
The exhaust steam of the engine should be utilized for 
scalding the skim milk in order to keep it sweet until fed. 
The arrangement must be convenient so that the person in 
charge can easily steam and clean it every da)^" 

DIMENSIONS AND COST. 

The dimensions of a creamery large enough to handle the 
milk from 300 to 500 cows should not be less than 22x40 
feet for the main building and 20x20 feet for the wing con- 
taining the boiler, engine and coal room. The cost of such 
a creamery is all the way from $2,500 to $3,500; depending 
on the cost of material and the character of its equipment. 
In addition to the machinery already mentioned the follow- 
ing is a very fair estimate of the outfit required. 

One 600 gallon milk vat; one 300 gallon cream vat; one, 
and perhaps two separators; one 600 pound two-beam scale; 
one creamery suspension salting scale; one combined churn 
and worker, or one box churn and Mason worker. One 
tempering pan; one 80 gallon weigh can; two common milk 
pumps in addition to the suction or force steam pump for 
the well. To this must be added the necessary pipe and 
steam fittings with which to pipe water and steam to the 



238 Common Sense Ideas forDairym,en. 

churn, sink, skim milk tank and all vats in the cream erty 
This will require at least twenty feet, two inch exhaust 
pipe, twenty feet one and one-half inch, and twenty feet 
one and one-fourth inch steam pipe, and two hundred 
feet three-fourth inch, and thirty feet one-half inch steam 
pipe. To this must be added the requisite number of 
elbows, check-valves, nipples, unions, bushings and tees 
necessary to the proper piping of the creamery. 

There will further be required about twenty feet of 
shafting with the necessary number of hangers, pulleys, etc. , 
together with belting, pails, cream and milk spouts, steam 
tester, thermometers and numerous other small articles that 
go to make up a complete creamer)^ equipment. It is well, 
when contemplating the construction of a creamery, to 
correspond with some reliable creamery supply company 
and get their estimates on the necessary articles of equip- 
ment and their cost. It is also advisable to purchase the 
outfit on sixty or thirty day's trial, when if there are any 
flaws in the apparatus bought they will undoubtedly be 
discovered. 



Ciiapter 9. 

farmers' dairy clubs. 

All experience has demonstrated that a union of effort 
in any undertaking is usually productive of success. The 
healthful growth of all human enterprises depends more on 
the harmonious relation of what are generally considered 
minor details, than it does on the more conspicuous factors 
that outline the specific work in hand.' The reason for this 
is not that the little details, Considered singly, are more 
important than are fundamental principles, but because they 
are so much more easily overlooked. 

We have all heard of the wealthy individual who 
planned the building of a palatial residence; demanding that 
the ai tisans engaged in its construction should neither add to 
nor take from the plans and specifications furnished them. 
When the work was completed and she was called in to 
accept it, she was both surprised and chagrined to discover 
that the building contained neither stairs nor staircase; no 
provision having been made for them in the plans she had 
drawn. Thus her magnificent dwelling, complete in every 
inportant feature, was rendered practically useless by the 
omission of a single minor detail. 

So it often happens that in the prosecution of a certain 
work, we become so absorbed in a contemplation of its main 
characteristics, that we pass unnoticed some little detail, the 
neglect of which, either detracts from or wholly prevents 
successful achievement. Errors of this nature are so 
common that no man, however proficient he may be in a 
knowledge of his work, is entirely free from them. 

It is safe to conclude, therefore, that no man can 
depend on himself alone in the successful prosecution of any 

[239] 



240 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

work. It requires the thought of other minds, and the 
result of a knowledge gained by other experiences, united 
with his own, to attain faultless completion. "In union 
there is strength," applies with equal force to all forms and 
kinds of human endeavor; and the power of united effort is 
today recognized as the controling influence in almost every 
undertaking. 

The dairy industry is no exception to the general rule. 
The first real and permanent advancement of its interests, 
dates from the organization of dairymen's associations. 
Dairymen came together at the meetings of these associa- 
tions for the purpose of exchanging ideas and experiences, 
and at their close returned to their farms enriched by an 
ample store of information, which was at once applied in 
the prosecution of advanced methods in their work. So the 
Farmers' Institutes, held each winter in several of the 
states, are gradually lifting all features of the agricultural 
industry to a higher plane of excellence; demonstrating 
conclusively, that the trend of united effort is in the 
direction of success. 

The advantages afforded by these county and state 
organizations are greatly enlarged upon, by the formation 
of similar associations in each community where agriculture 
or dairying is the chief industry. 

In referring to the benefits resulting from these local 
associations, George McKerrow, superintendent of Farmers' 
Institutes in Wisconsin, says: "In holding Farmers' Insti- 
tutes in the different sections of Wisconsin, we have found 
that in those localities where farmers' clubs have been 
maintained for some' time, there the most intelligent and 
best meetings are conducted, and the thrift, intelligence and 
morality of the people are above the average." 

Mr. McKerrow was so impressed by these evidences of 
the benefits resulting from these local organizations that he 



Farmers'' Dairy Clubs. 241 

compiled a constitution and set of by-laws from those of 
some of the best working clubs in the state, and pubHshed 
them in the Farmers' Institute Bulletin as an aid to other 
communities in establishing like organizations. 

A similar form of constitution, by-laws and rules of 
order, are given in this chapter, for the organization of 
Dairy Clubs. Every community where dairying is the 
chief, or even an important industry, should have its Dairy 
Club. A good plan being for the patrons of each cheese 
factory or creamery to form an organization of their own. 

It is needless, perhaps, to outline any particular plan to 
be adopted in organizing a club, though a few general 
suggestions will not be out of place. As an initiatory 
movement, let one or more persons interested in the 
advancement of dairy pursuits in the community, sohcit the 
cooperation of their neighbors in effecting an organization. 
Point out to them the advantages resulting from united 
effort, both as a promoter of closer social relations in the 
neighborhood, and as a disseminator of a more comprehen- 
sive knowledge of dairying. 

It will not be found difficult, if properly undertaken, 
to awaken an interest in such a movement in the average 
community. The American people are generally ready to 
promote the advancement of every enterprise which involves 
their interests, by every rational means; and any suggested 
movement, the utihty of which, on examination, appeals to 
their reason and convinces their judgment, will receive their 
most liberal support and cooperation. For this reason it 
will not be difficult to establish a dairy club in almost any 
community where the right enthusiasm characterizes the 
efforts of the promoters. 

INTEREST THE YOUNG. 
At the very outset strive to ' enlist the cooperation of 
the young men and women of the community in the work. 



242 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

If the sons and daughters of the farmers are thus brought 
together in social union, and for a discussion of the numer- 
ous topics connected with successful farming, they will grow 
to love farm life, as they acquire a scientific knowledge of 
the many problems it presents for study and solution. As 
a result a less number of them will leave the old home to 
seek a fortune in professional or commercial pursuits. The 
study and thought found necessary to master the questions 
pertaining to progressive dairying will lend dignity to the 
vocation and teach them that energy and brains are as 
essential here, as they are in any other of the many piu-suits 
of life. 

Such an organization will be sure to bring to the front, 
in every community, business tact and ability, which other- 
wise might have lain dormant forever, The different 
methods discussed at the meetings will also tend to create a 
friendly rivalry among the members, in their endeavor to 
produce the most milk per cow or the largest amount of 
butter from a herd. This will eventually lead to the keeping 
of better stock, to improved methods of feeding and care, 
and ultimately, to the realization of larger profits from the 
business. 

Every dairy community should have such an association; 
and that the work of organization may be facilitated, we 
append the following constitution, by-laws, and rules of 
order for dairy clubs: 



Fariners'' Dairy Clubs. 243 

CONSTITUTION AND BY LAWS 

OF THE 



DAIRY CLUB, 

OF 

TOGETHER WITH 
RULES OF ORDER AND ORDER OF BUSINESS. 



CONSTITUTION. 

PREAMBLE. 

We, the undersigned, interested in Dairying, and 
desirous to secure the benefits to be derived from organiza- 
tion, for the purpose of practical discussion and the 
promotion of the common interests of our pursuit, do 
subscribe the following Constitution: 

ARTICLE I — NAME. 
This association shall be styled and known as the 

Dairy Club. 

ARTICLE II — OBJECTS. 
The objects of this Club are to advance the knowledge 
and promote the general interests of dairying in this com- 
munity. 

ARTICLE III — OFFICERS. 

The officers shall consist of a President, Vice President, 
Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretar>', Treasurer, 
and lyibrarian. 

ARTICLE IV — DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 

Section i. It shall be the duty of the President to 
preside at all meetings of the Club; to enforce a due observ- 
ance of the constitution, by-laws, and rules of order; to 
assign topics for discussion, a!t the suggestion of members. 



244 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

He shall neither make nor second any motion, but shall 
have the privilege of taking part in debate; and while he 
has the floor, the meeting, for the time being, shall be in 
charge of the Vice President; but the President shall have 
no vote unless the Club shall be equally divided. 

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the Vice President 
to preside at all times when the President is absent, and 
while he shall have temporarily vacated the chair. 

Section 3 . The Recording Secretary shall keep a record 
of the proceedings of the Club, also the name of each 
member, and shall, on the last regular meeting of each year^ 
prepare and read the names of all members, and he shall 
have charge of the archives of the Club. 

Section 4. Tiie Corresponding Secretary shall conduct 
the correspondence of the Club and act as Recording Secre- 
tary in the absence of that officer. He shall render such 
assistance to thje Recording Secretary as that officer may 
require in the performance of his duties. 

Section 5 . The Treasurer shall keep all money belong- 
ing to the Club, and disburse the same under the direction 
of the Club, according to its laws. He shall collect all fines 
dues of members, and shall, sometime during the month 
of December of each year, notify such as are in arrears and 
request their dues. He shall keep a correct account of all 
moneys received and expended. 

Section 6. The lyibrarian shall have charge of the 
lyibrary and its appurtenances, regulating the use of the 
same by the members, according to the rules and regulations 
prescribed. He shall make a written report of the condition 
of the library, at the annual meeting, and at such other 
times as the Club may direct. He shall, within one week, 
deliver to his successor in office, the library and its- 
appurtenances, and all books, papers and documents in his- 
possession, belonging to the Club, 



Farmers'' Dairy Clubs. 245 

ARTICLE V — ELECTIONS. 
All elections for officers shall be by ballot, and shall be 
held at the first regular meeting in January of each, year; 
and their terms shall commence immediately after their 
election, to continue for one year, or until others are elected 
to fill their places. In the case of vacancy occurring in any 
office, the Club shall go immmediately into an election to 
fill the same. A majority of all the votes cast shall be 
necessary to a choice. 

ARTICLE VI — MEMBERSHIP. 

Section i. Any person interested in dairying, and of 
good moral standing, may become a member of this Club by 
signing this constitution, agreeing to support all laws and 
regulations made in pursuance thereof, and paying fifty 
cents annually into the treasury. 

Section 2. Honorary membership may be conferred in 
consideration of eminent character and services in behalf 
of dairying, and shall be conferred without fee or dues. 
The recipient shall not be entitled to hold office, but may 
take part in all discussions and vote on all questions. 

ARTICLE VII — AMENDMENTS. 

No alteration, amendment or addition can be made to 
this Constitution, neither can a part of it be repealed, with- 
out a vote of two-thirds of the members present. Any 
proposed alteration, amendment, addition or repeal must be 
submitted in writing, filed with the Recording Secretary, 
and read at the two regular meetings next preceeding that 
on which the vote is taken. 

, BY-I^AWS. 

ARTICLE I. 

This Club shall assemble weekly on 

evenings, from November i to April i , and at such intervals 
thereafter as may be agreed upon by the Club, or appointed 



246 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairy tnen. 

by the President. The time and place of meeting may be 
altered at any regular meeting of the Club by a vote of 
two-thirds of all the members present. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section i . Seven members shall constitute a quorum 
for the transaction of business of the Club. A less number 
may meet, maintain a discussion on any topic, and adjourn 
to any given time. 

Section 2. Persons present, not members of the Club, 
may be invited to take part in all discussions of dairy topics; 
but they shall take no part in the business of the Club. 
ARTICLE III. 

Section i. If the funds of the Club should at any 
time be exhausted, or inadequate to meet the demands 
contemplated by the constitution, there shall be an equal 
assessment upon each member to make up the deficiency. 

Section 2. No appropriation of money from the funds 
of the Club shall be lawful, except in furtherance of the 
objects contemplated by the Constitution, as stated in 
Article 2, or specially provided by these By-Laws. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section i . There shall be a library established for the 
use of the Club in furtherance of the objects contemplated 
in Article 2, of the Constitution. 

Section 2. The library shall be open to the free use of 
the members of the club, who shall not be more than three 
months indebted to the treasury, subject to the prescribed 
rules and regulations. 

Section 3. The library shall be maintained by the 
surplus fund, after defraying the expenses of the club, and 
by the voluntary contributions and donations of the 
members, to be duly accredited to such contributor and 
donor. 



Farmers'' Dairy Clubs. 247 

Section 4. The library shall be in charge of the 
Librarian, as provided in Article 4, Section 6, of the Con- 
stitution. There shall be a standing lyibrary Committee of 
three members, appointed at each Annual Meeting, of whom 
the Librarian shall be one, and ex-ojjtcio chairman, who 
shall have charge of the purchase and collection of books, 
papers and pamphlets for the library, and perform such 
other duties as may be ordained. 

SECTION V — RULES. 

Rule I . No member shall have from the library more 
than one book ^t a time. 

Rule 2. No volume shall be retained longer than two 
weeks, under penalty of a fine of ten cents for the first 
week of detention and. five cents for each week thereafter. 

Rule 3. There shall be assessed for injuries as follows: 
First, for an injury beyond ordinary wear, an amount 
appropriate to the injury, ascertained by the Librarian. 
Second, for the loss of a volume, the cost of the book; and 
if one of a set, an amount sufficient to replace it or purchase 
a new set. 

Rule 4. No person having incurred a fine shall be 
permitted to take books from the library until the fine is 
paid. 

ARTICLE V. 

A vote of two-thirds of all the members present shall 
be required to pass any appropriation of money by the club 
other than for its necessary contingent expenses. 

ARTICLE VI. 

Section i . Any member who shall suffer his account 
with the Treasurer to go unsettled for more than one year 
shall cease to be considered as belonging to the club, and 
his name shall be stricken from the roll accordingly. 

Section 2 . Any member who shall be guilty of any 
gross violation of the rules of order, or of profane or 



248 Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

indecent language or conduct at any of the meetings of the 
club, shall be fined, reprimanded, or expelled, as the club 
may, by a two-thirds vote, decide. 

Section 3. Any member who shall become guilty of 
any heinous offence or disgraceful practice, such as to render 
him unfit as an associate, shall on conviction thereof, be 
expelled by the club. 

ARTICLE VII. 
These By-Laws may be amended in the same manner 
as the Constitution. 

STANDING RESOLUTIONS. 
Resolved, That, after this date, the weekly meetings of 
this club shall be held on , at , 

or at the residence of the members of the club, at 

o'clock. 

Resolved, That there shall be an Executive Committee 
consisting of the President, Recording Secretary and Treas- 
urer, having power to transact the necessary business of the 
club during the term when the meetings are not held. 

RULES OF ORDER. 

Rule I . No question shall be stated unless moved by 
two members, nor open for discussion unless stated by the 
President. 

Rule 2. When a member intends to speak on a question 
he shall rise in his place and respectfully address his 
remarks to the chair, confine his remarks to the question, 
and avoid personalities. Should more than one person rise 
at a time, the President shall determine who is entitled to 
the floor. 

Rule ,3 . When a member is called to order \iy the 
President, or any other member, he shall at once take his 
seat, and every point of order shall be decided by the Pres- 
ident, without debate, subject to an appeal to the club. 



Partners^ Dairy Clubs. 249 

Rule 4. In case of an appeal from the decision of the 
chair, the question shall be put to the club, thus: "Shall the 
decision of the chair be sustained?" which shall be decided 
without debate. 

Rule 5. No member shall interrupt another while he 
is speaking, except to call to order. 

Rule 6. Any member may call for a division of the 
question, when the sense will admit of it. 

Rule 7 . When any three members call for the ayes and 
nays, they shall be taken and recorded on the minutes. 

Rule 8. All resolutions shall, when required by the 
President or any member, . be submitted in writing, and 
signed by the member offering the same. 

Rule 9. Gushing' s Manual of Parliamentary Practice 
shall be adopted as authority in all matters pertaining to 
parliamentary order in the club. 

Rule 10. These rules may be amended in the same 
manner as the Constitution and By-Iyaws. 

ORDER OF BUSINESS. 

1 . Calling the roll of officers and necessary filling of 
vacancies. 

2. Reading the minutes of last meeting. 

3. Reports of committees. 

4. Unfinished business. 

5. New business. 

6. Reception of new members. 

7. Has any member any question to ask for inform- 
ation in regard to his farm, stock, etc.? 

8. Reading of communications and essays. 

9. Discussion of regular topic. 

10. Assignment of subject for next discussion. 

11. Adjournment. 



250 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairym,en. 

The following topics for discussion, and subjects for 
essays may be profitably considered by clubs, together with 
numerous others that will suggest themselves from time to 
time: 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

1 . Which should receive first consideration in select- 
ing a cow for the dairy, individual merit or breed? 

2. Which is the more important, the quality or 
quantity of milk a cow gives. 

3. Does it pay to feed dairy stock liberally, on feeds 
rich in protein elements? 

4. Does the feeding of silage injure the quality of 
dairy products? 

5. Does it pay to feed silage to dairy stock? 

6. Which is the more economical feed, corn or clover 
silage? 

7. Is the type or shape of a cow an index of dairy 
qualities? 

8. Which is the more desirable quality in a dairy 
cow, the quantity of milk she gives or the persistence with 
which she gives it? 

9. Can a cow, inclined to apply the food she eats to 
the production of fat, be rendered profitable in a dairy? 

10. Is it more profitable for the dairy farmer to raise 
his dairy stock than it is to purchase them? 

1 1 . Which has the greater influence on the productive- 
ness of the dairy cow, the kind and quantity of feed she eats 
or the care and training she receives? 

12. Does the want of physical exercise impair the 
vitality of the dairy cow? 

13. Can the fat content of milk be increased by the 
kind, quality or quantity of feed given her? 

14. Does it pay to make cheese and butter on the 
farm? 



Farmers^ Dairy Clubs. 



251 



15. Which is the more profitable for the dairy farmer, 
the cooperative or the proprietary s^'stem of butter and 
cheese production? 

16. Is the manufacture and sale of skim cheese 
injurious to the milk producer? 

17. Should the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine 
be prohibited? 

18. Should the dairy farmer plant his corn in hills or 
in drills? 

19. Does it pay to plough corn ground in the fall? 

20. Does it pa}^ to feed dairy cows a grain ration when 
they are not giving milk? 



I 
2 

intervals. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
1 1 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 

18 

19 



SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS. 

Points by which to judge a dairy cow. 

Benefits resulting from milking at regular 

Where the Jersey cow excels. 

The Holstein-Friesian cow in the dairy. 

Influence of type on milk production. 

Influence of different feeds on milk production. 

Influence of care on milk production. 

How to ventilate the cow barn. 

How to care for milk. 

Home testing; its benefits. 

Value of milk records. 

How to keep a herd book. 

Buttermaking on the farm. 

Ripening cream. 

Cheesemaking on the farm. 

Feed value of skim milk. 

How to raise a calf. 

How milk should be tested. 

How to train dairy stock. 



•252 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

20. How to detect points of excellence in a dairy cow. 

21. How to keep the most dairy stock on a farm. 

22. Feeds rich in protein elements. 

23. Value of corn as a feed for dairy stock. 

24. The creamery and the farmer's wife. 

25. An ideal home dair5^ 

26. What dairying has done for our farms. 

27. Teach the girls to milk and make butter 

28. The cow versus wheat; cash versus credit. 

29. Marketing butter and cheese. 

30. Science in dairying. 



CHapter lO* 

Miscellaneous Facts* 

Under the above caption will be considered briefly, a 
few factors of more or less importamce in dairy work, that 
have not been discussed in the preceding chapters; first of 
which will be the relations which ought to exist between 
the 

PATRON AND FACTOR YM AN. 

The two central figures in the producing problem of 
dairy work are the patron and the factory man. The man 
who produces the milk and the one who manufactures it 
into commercial products. That there is a unity of interests 
existing between these two goes without saying; therefore, 
a singleness of purpose and a uniformity of action, on their 
part, is indispensable to success. The patron should under- 
stands that, whenever by legitimate means he renders 
substantial aid to the factoryman he, by the same act, 
promotes his own business interests. The factoryman 
should likewise comprehend that, whatever adds to the 
patron's prosperity has a corresponding effect upon his own. 
If this similarity of interests and mutual dependence was 
better understood, or being understood, was more generally 
acted upon by both patron and factoryman, not only would 
it render their relations to each other more harmonious, but 
it would contribute much to the financial advantage of both 
parties. The patron should be careful not to overestimate 
his rights. He must not reason that, as the factoryman 
must have milk or close up his factory, he, the patron, is 
privileged to manage his end of the business any way he 
pleases; for by so doing, he may saw off the limb that is 

[253] 



254 ComiHon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

supporting him. He has no right to expect the highest market 
price for his milk, if it is inferior in quaHty or is in bad 
condition; neither has he the right to dictate to the factory- 
man what the required quaHty and condition of the milk 
shall be. This is a prerogative belonging to the factory- 
man's end of the business, and he is entitled to its full 
control within reasonable limits. The patron should not 
neglect necessary precautions in caring for his milk, trusting 
to the good management of his brother patrons to carry him 
through; for by so doing he not only imperils his own but 
their interests, thereby infringing on their and the factory- 
man's rights. 

He should listen to all reasonable suggestions made by 
the factoryman in relation to the feed and water given to 
his cows, and as far as possible conform to them. He must 
not, however, consider a suggestion unreasonable simply 
because it may conflict with some of his pet theories regard- 
ing the management of a dairy. If he observes these 
requirements, he has a right to demand from the factory- 
man the ptevailing market price for his milk. It is his 
right also to receive courteous and impartial treatment in all 
necessary transactions with the factoryman, and such 
information regarding the general management of the 
business as is his rightful privilege to know. 

Chief among these rights, perhaps, is the privilege of 
knowing how his milk is tested. In a large majority of 
factories the price paid for milk is regulated by its fat 
content, and the patron has the same right to know how 
this is determined and to witness, if he desires to do so, the 
process of testing his milk, that he has to know the scales 
are rightly balanced on which the feed he purchases is 
weighed. It is the factoryman's duty, therefore, to recog- 
nize this privilege and not only permit the patron to witness 
the testing of his milk, but to explain to him the details of 



Miscellaneous Facts. 255 

the process by which the final , result is obtained. The 
existance of "strained relations" between patron and 
factory man, is more often attributable to a misunderstand- 
ing regarding the milk test than to any other cause. It 
would seem as though dissatisfaction from this source could 
be greatly lessened, if not wholly removed, by the adoption 
of more frank and open methods by the factory man. 

If he is exercising proper care in taking the test, and if 
there is no irregularity in its manipulation, he certainly has 
nothing to conceal from the patron. Therefore, he should 
always show a willingness to explain how the testing is 
done, and the patron should be made to feel that he is at all 
times welcome to be present and see his milk tested. We 
fear there are occasions when methods are practiced by 
factorymen, that afford ample grounds for dissatisfaction 
on the part of the patron. Sometimes if a patron's milk is 
testing above the average he is cut down a little, and 
another patron, whose milk is testing low, is raised a few 
points. A factory man sometimes does this, not to gain an 
unfair advantage himself, but to avoid the creation of 
jealousies among the patrons, occasioned by wide differences 
in the per cent of their several tests. He also reasons that, 
if a patron's milk is testing what he considers as abnormally 
high at one season of the year, and the patron knows it, he 
will be dissatisfied when at another period it may test quite 
low. So rather than take the trouble to explain to the 
patron the conditions which may cause this wide difference 
in the test of his cows, he takes off a little at one time and 
adds a little at another, that the test may be nearly uniform 
throughout the year. While a factory man may see little 
harm resulting from this practice, the fact remains it is not 
right and cannot be justified by any correct system of 
reasoning. It is far better to give the patrons what belongs 
to them at all times be it much or little. Then if jealousies 



256 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

arise between them because of differences in their tests, let 
the foreman show them, by making a test in their presence, 
that the differences actually exist and all cause for dissatis- 
faction will be removed. 

Further, it is sometimes customary for two or more 
factory men operating factories or creameries in adjacent 
communities, to agree, without their patrons' knowledge, 
upon the price they will pay for fat for a given time. This 
price is generally a little below the values warranted by 
market conditions. When the dividends are received by the 
patrons they may be dissatisfied with the prices obtained, 
but, in the language of Tweed "What are they going to do 
about it?" Factoryman "A" is paying as much as factory- 
man "B" or "C", and though the patrons may believe they 
are not receiving fair treatment, they have no remedy, 
unless they ' assume control of the whole business and 
establish cooperative factories. 

A few years ago, for the farmers to do this successfully 
was considered next to impossible. It was forcibly urged, 
until the farmers sometimes believed it themselves, that 
cooperative factories or creameries could not succeed, 
because the farmers could not, and would not if they could, 
agree among themselves. It was further argued that, 
though they should succeed in manufacturing butter and 
cheese, they were so unskilled in the methods of trade, that 
they could not sell these products to advantage. Con- 
sequently, should they try the cooperative plan, it was only 
a question of a few months or a year when they would be 
forced to return to the proprietary factory, poorer but wiser 
men. 

The fallacy of these claims has been conclusively 
proven during the last few years, by the large number of 
cooperative factories and creameries that have sprung into 
existence and the permanency that seems to characterize their 



Farmers^ Dairy Clubs. 257 

growth. We very seldom hear now-a-days of a cooperative 
creamery faihng; and when one does fail, it is as often 
attributable to some other causes, as it is either to a lack of 
unity among the farmers composing its patrons, or a want 
of thenecessary ability to conduct the business. 

Another significant fact has been demonstrated in 
recent years, and that is, where a cooperative creamery 
springs up in opposition to a proprietary creamery, the 
latter usually suffers most from the competition. The truth 
has also been established that the farmer does, when put to 
the test, possess the tact and business sagacity necessary to 
the proper managemtnt of a cheese fac'ory or creamery. In 
almost every communit}^ where cooperative creameries have 
been established, business ability has been brought to the 
front that heretofore lay hidden and dormant. Thus 
illustrating the truth that, there can be no contingency in 
huraau affairs but someone is found able to meet and 
successfully cope with it. 

Should the cooperative factory then, supersede the 
proprietary factory? Yes and no. If the management of 
the proprietray creameries shows a disposition to lake 
advantage of their patrons, by trickery and deception with- 
holding from them a portion of what is their rightful dues, 
then it is not only the patrons' privilege but it is their duty 
to sever all relations with such proprietors and assume 
control of the manufacture of their own dairy products. 
When such conditions exist the dishonest creamery pro- 
prietor has no just cause for complaint; as the competition 
which thus springs up and overwhelms him is the result 
of his own avarice and he deserves to be pushed to the wall. 

On the other hand, when a creamery proprietor deals 
fairly and honestly with his patrons, as many of them do, 
it is not good business policy for the farmers to try the 
cooperative plan. The average dairy farmer has enough to 



258 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

attend to if he gives proper attention to the selection of his 
herd and the many factors which enter into its feeding and 
care, without assuming the additional responsibility of manu- 
facturing and selling butter and cheese. Under these 
conditions he had much better stay with the proprietary 
creamery and aid, by every legitimate means in his power, 
in building it up and rendering its business prosperous. 

In justice to his judgement it must be admitted this is 
the course he usually pursues; often staying with the 
proprietary factory or creamery long after he has sufficient 
provocation to leave it and assume the management of the 
business himself. In this regard he illustrates the truism 
set forth in the Declaration of Independence that "all 
experience has shown that mankind are more disposed to 
suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed." 

QUALIFICATIONS OF A FOREMAN. 

It is not only necessary for a foreman to know how to 
make butter and cheese but he should be equally competent 
in the care and management of machinery. Many a cheese- 
factory and creamery has been driven to the wall through 
the incompetency of the man in charge of it. A man is 
often engaged to assume the management of a creamery 
whose onl}^ qualification for the position, if it can be called 
a qualification, is that he works for small wages. He, 
perhaps, has worked as second man for a few months in 
in some factory, and imagines he knows all about the 
business; when in fact, he is ignorant of every important 
principle involved in butter and cheesemaking, and general 
factory management. The low price he asks for his services 
sometimes secures a position for this kind of an operator. 
Nevertheless, his engagement, at however low a price, often 
proves to be ill-advised economy; as the damage to 
machinery resulting from his incompetency, added to the 



Miscellaneous Fads. 259 

loss sustained through the making of poor butter and cheese, 
often renders his services very expensive. 

Following are a few of the many short-comings which 
characterize the work of the incompetent foreman: 

He will accept milk wholly unfit to make into butter 
and cheese because he does not know anything is the matter 
with it. He may be able to tell if milk is sour but at this 
point his knowledge of its condition ends. 

He handles his cream as a parrot does words, never 
changing to meet altered conditions. 

His separators, usually out of balance, bewail their 
condition in hoarse rumblings when run at high speed. To 
save time and trouble, he usually throws them on while the 
engine is in full motion. He never cleans them during the 
process of separating, and it is often difficult to determine 
which is the larger stream, the one flowing from the cream 
spout or the one flowing from the milk spout. 

To economize in time and labor, he will sometimes 
throw away the samples of milk saved, from which to make 
a composite test, and make out his report to the manage- 
ment from the test taken the month before. ' 

It is no unusual thing for him to become so ] roficient 
in a knowledge of the business, that he finds it unnecessary 
to weigh the salt for his butter, or even take the tempera- 
ture of the cream before churning it. 

Enter the factory where he presides, when the steam 
is up and the machinery in motion and you will be 
confronted by fresh evidences of his superior talent, in the 
clattering of shafts in loose boxes and the hissing of steam 
as it escapes from imperfect valves 

lyook into the fire box under the boiler, and you will 
find the grates clogged with clinkers, and if the investigation 
is carried farther, the interior of the boiler will most likely 
be found coated with lime. 



260 Corntnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

The uncertain condition of the machinery renders the 
copious use of oil necessary; which is frequently evidenced 
by the small pools on the floor under the shaft-hangers, and 
the tiny rivulets flowing out in different directions from the 
separators. 

But why comment farther on his various qualifications? 
Factory proprietors and cooperative creamery managers all 
know him. Some of them to their sorrow, have had 
business dealings with him. These latter ought to know 
him best, for his genius is often the child of their creation. 
Had they not been looking for something cheap he, 
perhaps, would never have been heard of. They were 
economical men who believed in curtailing expenses in all 
departments of their business; consequently they demanded 
cheap help and he filled the requirement exactly, for he is 
cheap in any sense the term implies. 

Compare this weak apology for a man with the wide 
awake, energetic, up-to-date foreman. The man who is 
competent in every department of creamery work, knows it, 
and demands adequate pay for his services. Go on the 
weigh-stand where he is receiving milk and note the care he 
exercises in determiming its condition. See how readily he 
notes defects, points them out to the patron, and suggests 
methods whereby the}- may be avoided in the future. Go 
into the butter room and no stale or ancient odors will meet 
3'ou at the door. Neither will you observe little heaps of 
dirt, peeping out from half hidden corners, nor see cobwebs 
hanging in festoons from the ceiling. 

There are no creaking shafts or leaky valves to jar your 
nerves, nor oil drippings from shaft-hangers, to destroy 
your clothes. The engine runs smoothly and is free from 
grease and cinders, while the fire in the fire-box burns 
brightly; showing that everything is in order and under the 
control of a master hand. 



Miscellaneous Fads. 261 

The separators run without a jar, and every belt and 
piece of machinery is perfectly performing the service for 
for which it is intended. His cream is properly cooled and 
ripened and his butter is extras every time. 

Such a foreman is not backward in pointing out to 
patrons their short-comings, or in requesting them to 
improve their methods. This, however, is done in a 
courteous manner but in a way that carries conviction with 
it. The patrons soon learn that his heart is in his work, 
and that he fully understands what he is doing. For this 
the}^ respect him, have confidence in him and willingly carry 
out any change of method he may suggest. 

The life of such a foreman is not one round of drudger)^ 
as some may suppose; for by keeping everything in order, 
there is never a hitch in his work to hold him over hours. 
By having all things properly adjusted at the beginning, a 
little attention every day keeps them so; thereby affording 
ample opportunity for pleasant diversion. 

The actual value of such a foreman as the one just 
described is not always appreciated by his emplo}'ers. His 
usefulness does not end with his ability to make good butter 
and cheese and properly manage the general details of 
factory work. There is another feature equal in importance 
with those mentioned, where his services are of great value. 
He is, so to speak, the coupling link that holds together in 
harmonious relation the factory proprietor and his patrons. 
The owner or manager of a number of cheese factories and 
creameries, can give but little time to the every day affairs 
that enter into the operation of each of them. He is seldom 
brought into close personal relation with his numerous 
patrons; being obliged to deal with them as combinations, 
rather than as individuals. Therefore the adjustment of 
numerous details of a personal nature, must be left to the 
foremen in charge or the several factories. To them the 



262 Comtnon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

patrons come with their real or imaginary grievances, with 
numerous requests and suggestions, and the thousand and 
one questions that constantly present themselves from day 
to day. The really competent foreman is always ready to 
meet and satisfactorily adjust all these conditions. He is 
quick to perceive individual characteristics, and adapts the 
method he employs in business transactions to their several 
requirements. In short, he is a successful arbiter, always 
standing between his employer and the patrons, to avert 
contention and prevent dissatisfaction. 

His services in this direction should not be disregarded 
nor underestimated bv the creamery proprietor. Men who 
possess these valuable qualities are finer grained than is the 
indifferent, incompetent shirk, and they feel keenly any 
lack of appreciation of their efforts. The creamery man 
then, who is so fortunate as to have in his employ, men of 
this calibre and efficiency, will further his own interests by 
according them the treatment their superior qualities merit. 
Provide them with every facility necessary for the proper 
accomplishment of their work, pay them liberally for their 
services and do not lay them off or cut their wages if 
business happens to be slack for a short time. Show them 
by your demeanor that you appreciate their efforts. Not by 
fulsome praise, for this is always distasteful to a man of 
spirit, but by considerate acts, such as giving them an 
occasional holiday or a two weeks' vacation without any 
loss of time. The employer who pursues this course in his 
dealings with his competent, painstaking employes, 
whether it be in the creamery, or any other business, is not 
only insuring to himself the best service they can give him, 
but what is of equal value, he wins their sincere respect and 
esteem . 



Miscellaneous Facts. 263 

WASTES IN THE FACTORY. 

The importance of this factor is closely related to the 
one just considered, the competency of the man in charge of 
the creamery. One of the most fruitful sources of loss in 
the creamery is a failure to separate cleanly. It is an easy 
matter for an mdifferent operator to throw away at this one 
point more than his salary amounts to. Did you never 
figure out what it amounts to in a year, in a factory receiv- 
ing ten thousand pounds of milk daily, to leave one-tenth 
of one per cent of fat in the milk? It means a loss of nearly 
ten pounds of butter fat each day. If you add twenty per 
cen to this, to cover the churn overrun, it shows a loss of 
twelve pounds of commercial butter, amounting, at twenty- 
five cents a pound, to three dollars every twenty-four hours- 
or one thousand ninety-five dollars every year. This sum 
represents a five per cent income on a capital investment of 
twenty-one thousand nine hundred dollars. Quite an item 
IS It not? It IS not, however, likely to end here; for the 
operator who will lose that amount of fat in the skim milk, 
will m all probabihty, leave more of it in the buttermilk 

This loss m separating, can be largely overcome if 'the 
machines are run at high speed, and the milk is properly 
tempered, and not fed too fast into the separators. Another 
thing the separators must be kept clean. It is so easy to 
run them just a little while longer, though we know they 
are dirty, m order to get all the milk through without 
stopping. R.ght here is where the greatest loss is sustained 
For example, the separators may do comparatively clean 

ZndJf '-ir^f'^ '^'"^^^ '^^ ^^^^ ^^§ht thousand 
pounds of milk then become so clogged with dirt as to 
eave sufficient fat in the remaining two thousand pounds 
to cause an average loss of one-tenth of one per cent of fat' 
or even more. When the flow of cream from a machine 



264 Coynmon-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

indicates that it is becoming dirty it should be stopped at 
once, taken apart, and the tins rinsed without removing- 
them from the standard, and the inside of the bowl and 
milk tubes cleaned. The whole labor will not occupy over 
fifteen minutes for each machine, and it should never be 
neglected. When several ma* hines are used, one should be 
stopped, cleaned and started, then another, until all the 
machines have been over-hauled. By pursuing this course 
only one separator is idle at a time. 

Other sources of waste are from improperly ripened 
cream and churning at the wrong temperature, both of 
which have been referred to in another place and need not 
be discussed here. 

In cheesemaking the greatest waste is occasioned by 
losing the casein and fat in the whey. This loss can be 
greatly lessened by securing a firm set at not too high a 
temperature, and by careful handling in the first stages of 
scalding. Much loss can also be avoided by keeping the 
curing room at the right temperature, and by avoiding the 
presence of skippers in the cheese. 

Waste is also caused, in both cheese factories and 
creameries by having leaky conveyor pipes and vats, and 
leaky tempering pans. The latter is perhaps the most com- 
mon, consequently it deserves special mention. Nothing 
looks more slouchy and wasteful than to see milk flowing 
in tiny streams, like water from a street sprinkler, from the 
sides and bottom of a tempering pan. The tempering pan 
is an article of creamery equipment that soon wears out, and 
is often made to do service long after it is totally useless. 
Tempering pans are often destroyed by neglecting to keep 
water in them while in use. This should be avoided; as it 
not only injures the pan but the dry steam over heats the 
milk, causing it to burn on the tin. The operator should 
not only exercise care in this direction but he should 



3Iiscellaneous Fads. 265 

provide himself with solder and a soldering iron, and fill up 
the holes as fast as thty appear. He should also order a 
new pan and insist on getting it, before the waste 
occasioned by the continued use of the old one amounts to 
many times its cost; and when he gets it he should take 
care of it. 

Loss is also sustained by allowing the machinery to 
remain constantly out of order. Outlays for repairs, often 
represented by three figures, could be materiall)^ lessened if 
the machiner)' was properly looked after. Keep the 
separators balanced, and the bushings properly set and free 
from dirt and grit. See that the shafts are level and the 
hangers firm. Keep all bearings clean and well oiled and 
many dollars of useless expenditure can be saved everj^ 
year. 

Much waste is also occasioned by failure to take proper 
care of the boiler. This causes a waste in two directions; 
damage to the boiler and increased consumption of fuel. If 
a boiler is used for too long a time without blowing the 
water out of it and removing the lime scales that have 
accumulated on the bottom, it is liable to burn out. The 
hme will gather on the flues and on the inside of the boiler, 
then scale off and settle on the bottom over the fire box; 
keeping the water awaj^ from the boiler plate causing it to 
burn through. This condition also necessitates the con- 
sumption of more fuel; as the action of heat upon the water 
is retarded by the lime coating on the inside of the boiler. 

Do not blow off the boiler when a full pressure of 
steam is on. It is not necessary to have even half the usual 
pressure to accomplish the purpose desired. Again, do 
not after cleaning the boiler, refill it with cold water while 
very hot. It is well understood by almost everybody that 
iron or steel expands when subjected to heat and contracts 
when cold. Therefore, the transition from one of these 



266 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

conditions to the other should always be slow and gradual 
in using a steam boiler. This is necessary that the rivets 
holding together the plates may not be loosened or broken 
by a too rapid contraction or expansion. The better way is> 
to blow off and clean the boiler after the day's work is 
completed, then let it stand and cool until early the next 
morning before filling it with cold water. Of course this 
cannot be done in winter, when steam is needed to keep the 
factory at a proper temperature. But if, as is usually the 
case, the boiler is refilled from an over-head tank, the 
water in this should be heated before blowing off the boiler; 
then, after letting the boiler cool as long as possible after 
cleaning, fill it with the hot water from the tank. 

Fuel is not onl}^ wasted by allowing the boiler to 
become lime coated, but much is consumed unnecessarily by 
improper firing. In the first place, the grates are often 
allowed to become clogged with clinkers. This impairs the 
draught and produces a smouldering fire, that consumes 
large quantities of coal without generating much heat. 
Again, the grates may be kept clean but if the coal is 
thrown into the furnace in heaps the draught will be 
impaired and much waste of fuel will result. Therefore too 
much coal injures the fire instead of improving it. To 
obtain the best results fire often, spreading the coal thinly 
over the grates and putting in but little at a time. In this 
way a lively blaze can be maintained all the time, and all 
the heat generated by the combustion will be utilized in 
making steam. Fuel is often indirectly wasted by having 
leaky steam pipes and valves. In this way nearly half the 
steam generated is sometimes lost. 

Another, and the most fruitful source of waste, one 
which includes those named and many that have not been 
mentioned, is to give the factory into the charge of an 
incompetent, heedless, lazy operator. One who neither 



Miscellaneous Facts. 267 

knows nor cares how the factory should be run as long as 
he gets in his time and draws his salary. Therefore, the 
most effectual means for stopping these numerous leaks, 
that absorb such a large portion of the profits of the 
business is to engage only competent, energetic men to take 
charge of the work. 

ADVANTAGE IN DAIRYING. 

Farmers are often slow in realizing some of the most 
substantial benefits resulting from dairying; overlooking 
many of the real advantages which the establishment of the 
creamery or cheese factory has brought and is still bringing 
to their community. The fact is, the general improvement 
brought about through the influence of the dairy industry 
is so gradual that, by the time the farmer realizes that 
conditions with him have grown better, he is apt to to lose 
sight of the source from whence sprung his greater advance- 
ment. Therefore, it might be well enough to call him back 
for a moment, that he may scrutinize first causes, and, 
perhaps, pick up the trail which leads directly from these 
causes to the higher plane of material prosperity he now 
occupies. In the first place, dairying 

IMPROVKS THE FARM. 

By enriching the soil. It leads to the abandonment of the 
old system of single crop production. That system which 
constantly drains the land of its elements of fertility but 
never gives anything back, until it is so impoverished as to 
be almost sterile. A condition of the soil that is constantly 
producing poorer crops, which in turn leads to smaller 
revenues and larger debts; until the mortgage, like an 
octopus, catches the farmer in its death grip and in 
thousands of instances bears him down to financial ruin. 
Dairying is changing all this. It is leading the farmer to 
adopt a system of diversified farming which requires 



268 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

thought and research to understand. The result is, while 
he is seeking information in a single direction, new truths, 
relating to all features of agriculture constantly reveal 
themselves until, almost before he knows it, he is applying 
scientific principles in the management of his farm. Thus 
greater and more uniform success is moving parallel with 
his increased knowledge, until the sterile soil is becoming 
rich, the crops more bountiful, the debts are vanishing 
and the mortgage octopus is releasing its hold upon him. 
Dairying is also leading to the keeping of 

IMPROVED STOCK. 

A cow was a cow with the old time farmer. He knew 
nothing of the influence of type or breed on the 
development of specific qualities, and he never troubled 
himself by giving the subject any attention. When, how- 
ever, he enters the dairy field necessity compels him to 
change his tactics. He is fast learning that he cannot 
succeed with the scrub stock he has been keeping. Others, 
a little more progressive, perhaps, than himself, preceeded 
him in giving attention to the quality of their cows. They 
began, at first to talk about the influence of breed on the 
real value of a cow and about the effect of type on milk 
production. Then they began to make changes in their 
herds along these lines, with benficial results. This has 
inspired our farmer to try like methods, and so the good 
influence is spreading until the successful dairy farmer is 
becoming well versed in a knowledge of the cow, and will 
soon be, if he is not already, an expert judge of all kinds of 
stock. Again where dairying is successfully followed, 

THE CREDIT SYSTEM 

Of doing business has almost vanished. This system was 
formerly the farmers' greatest hindrance. The chief product 
of his farm was wheat with perhaps a few hogs or sheep, 



Miscellaneous Facts. 269 

which were marketed once a j^ear. As a result he traded 
throughout the year on credit. The merchant who carried 
him through charged double margins on all the goods the 
farmer purchased, and, when payday arrived, it often required 
more than the farm had produced to wipe out the debt; 
rendering it necessary for him to borrow money with which 
to pay the balance and meet his taxes. 

Dairying has improved these conditions. The dairy 
farmer receives cash returns from his investment every 
thirty days, and in many instances every fifteen days 
This enables him to pay cash for every thing he 
purchases, buying it where it can be procured for the 
least money, and select just the kind and quality of goods 
he wants. This one feature alone is saving millions of 
dollars to the farmers of the country everj^ year. There are 
numerous other advantages which dairying has, and is 
bringing to the American farmer but we will not take space 
to mention them here. It is needless to do so; as the 
benefits, both immediate and remote, that are resulting from 
this industry can be readily understood by the farmers 
themselves. 

Dairying is increasing the farmer's store of knowledge, 
thereby imparting a greater dignity to his vocation. It is 
rendering him more thrifty and consequently more prosper- 
ous. It is putting better improvements on his farm. It is 
building better school houses and providing better teachers, 
thereby aiding in the dissemination of a broader and more 
comprehensive knowledge among the young. In short, it is 
bringing to the American farmer increased prosperity, which 
means greater opportunity for improvement in the moral 
and intellectual as well as the material affairs of life. 

OLEOMARGARINE. 

Following are the ingredients used in the production 



270 Coinrnon-Sense Ideas for Dairytnen. 

of oleomargarine and the percentage each ingredient bears 
to the whole quantity: 

Neutral lard 34-27 per cent. 

Oleo oil 26.82 per cent. 

Cottonseed oil 4.77 per cent 

Sesame 0.53 per cent. 

Coloring matter o. 16 per cent. 

Glycerine o.oi per cent. 

Stearine 0.07 per cent. 

Glucose 0.03 per cent. 

Milk 15-55 P^r cent. 

Salt 7.42 per cent. 

Butter oil 4.76 per cent. 

Butter 1.72 per cent. 

Cream 3.86 per cent. 

The following are the number of pounds of the different 
ingredients used in the production of oleomargarine, for the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1899; as reported to Congress by 
the United States Secretary of the Treasury: 

Neutral lard 31,297,251 pounds. 

Oleo oil 24,491,769 pounds. 

Cottonseed oil 4,357,514 pounds. 

Sesame 486,310 pounds. 

Coloring matter 148,970 pounds. 

Glycerine 8,963 pounds. 

Stearine 5,890 pounds. 

Glucose 2,550 pounds. 

Milk 14,200,576 pounds 

Salt 6,773,670 pounds. 

Butter oil 4,342,904 pounds. 

Butter 1,568,319 pounds. 

Cream 3,527,410 pounds. 

Total 92,322,260 pounds. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 271 

The above will give the dairy farmers of the country 
some idea of the powerful competition this spurious article 
brings to bear upon legitimate butter production. 

Mflk Standards. 

The following are the milk standards established in 
several of the states: 

NEW YORK. 

By the law of 1893 New York requires twelve per cent 
of solids, three per cent of fat, and nine per cent of solids 
not fat. 

MAINE. 

By the law of 1893 Maine requires twelve per cent of 
solids, three per cent of fat, and nine per cent of solids 
not fat. 

VERMONT. 

By the law of 1888 Vermont requires twelve and one- 
half per cent of solids, three and one-fourth per cent of fat, 
and nine and one-fourth per cent of solids not fat. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

By the law of 1893 the state of New Hampshire 
requires thirteen per cent of solids. There is no standard 
fixing the per cent of fat. 

RHODE ISLAND. 
By the law of 1893 Rhode Island requires twelve per 
cent of solids, two and one-half per cent of fat and nine and 
one-half per cent of solids not fat. 

NEW JERSEY. 

By the law of 1882 New Jersey requires twelve per 
cent of solids. There is no standard fixing the per cent 
of fat. 



272 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

By the law of 1885 Pennsylvania requires twelve and 
one-half per cent of solids, three per cent of fat, and nine 
and one-half per cent of solids not fat. 

IOWA. 

By the law of 1892 Iowa requires three per cent of fat. 
There is no standard fixing the per cent of other solids. 

MINNESOTA. 

By the law of 1889 Minnesota requires thirteen per 
cent of solids, three and one-half per cent of fat and nine 
and one-half per cent of solids not fat. 

OREGON. 
By the law of 1893 Oregon requires twelve and one-half 
per cent of solids, three and two-tenths per cent of fat, and 
nine and three-tenths per cent of solids not fat. 

MICHIGAN. 

By the law of 1889 Michigan requires twelve and one- 
half per cent of solids, three per cent of fat, and nine and 
one-half per cent of solids not fat. 

WISCONSIN. 

By the law of 1889 Wisconsin requires three per cent 
of fat. There is no standard fixing the per cent of other 
solids. 

OHIO. 

By the law of 1889 Ohio requires twelve and one-half 
per cent of solids, three per cent of fat, and nine and one- 
half per cent of solids not fat. 

Oregon requires butter to contain not more than four- 
teen per cent of water. 

Minnesota requires cheese to contain forty per cent of 
fat in the solids. 



Miscellaneous Facts. 273 

ABORTION IN MILK COWS. 

The Royal Agricultural Society and Professor Williams, 
of the Edinburgh University have successfully tested the 
carbolic acid treatment. Mr N. A. I^ind, of Rolfe, Iowa, 
gives his experience as follows: 

" I had found abortion the most difficult disease to 
control. In the winter of 1894-1895 I had thirty-six head 
of thoroughbred Shorthorn cows all in calf by my herd bull, 
Wild Eyes Duke 2d. In less than four months eighteen out 
of the thirty-six aborted. I tried everything. I saw a 
report of the carbolic acid treatment and concluded to give 
it a trial. 

" Knowing it to be a deadly poison I feared to use it on 
my whole herd, but tried it on one cow first, and with good 
results. I ^ave her an eighth of an ounce every day in bran 
mash. She was showing strong symptoms of abortion at 
the time She kept looking well and eating well; the milk 
in the udder decreased, and all other appearance of coming 
abortion passed away.- I was now satisfied that it would at 
least do no harm, and I at once began feeding the whole 
herd, both those that had aborted and those that had not, 
commencing with one-eighth of :^n ounce doses and increas- 
ing gradually to one-half an ounce, giving ic in bran mash 
to each one every other day. The disease at once stopped. 
The cow that I first treated produced a fine, strong, healthy 
calf at the full time, and so did all the rest. This was in 
March, 1895, and I have not had a single cow abort since. 

" There is no risk in giving an eighth of an ounce dose 
and increasing the dose to the full amount of half an ounce 
to a cow every other day. They do not Hke it at first, but 
soon learn to eat it. I disinfect the stables around the 
stalls thoroughly every night before bed-time with a solution 
of bichloride of mercury made by dissolving two tablets in a 



274 Common-Sense Ideas for Dairymen. 

quart of warm water. I also washed the vulva, tail, hind 
legs and back of udder of all the cows that had aborted, 
with the same solution , and continued this until they were 
served again, about the time they would have been served 
had they carried their calves to the full period." 



Index. 

Page. 

Acid, Adding the 109 

Acid, Development of 205 

Ayrshire Cows, Points of Excellence for ■ 32 

Belle, (Illustration) 34 

Bottles, Whirling the 110 

Boiler, and Engin e 236 

Breeds, Results of Experiments with 20 

Brick Cheese, How to Make 222 

Building, Creamery, Dimensions of 231 

Creamery, Construction of 231 

Butter, Salting 165 

Packing 166 

How to Score 169 

Making on the Farm 170 

Handling the 175 

Calf, Care of 72 

Calving, Care at 70 

Calves, Feeding 47 

Cans, How to Clean . 126 

Chart, Showing Result of Two Days Tests 37 

Showing Result of Several Days Tests 39 

Chapter I — Selection of Dairy Stock 15 

II — Feeding and Care of Dairy Stock 51 

III — Corn and Clover Culture 75 

IV— Milk and Cream Testing 99 

V— Care of Milk 123 

VI — Buttermakers and Buttermaking 139 

VII — Cheesemaking 177 

VIII— Creamery Building 229 

[275] 



276 Index. 

Chapter IX— Farmers' Dairy Clubs 239 

X — Miscellaneous Facts 253 

Cheese, Quality of Western 177 

Skim 179 

Filled 181 

How to Make 197 

Flavor and Texture of 197 

Vat, (Illustration) 198 

Salting and Pressing 206 

Hoops and Follower, (Illustration) 207 

Press, (Illustration) 208 

Making Skim 209 

Mottles in ... 214 

Yield Obtained of 215 

Curing 217 

Churn, When to 161 

Churn and Butterworker Combined, (Illustration) 164 

Clover, Analysis of 60 

Hay, and Clover Silage 60 

Culture 86 

As a Fertilizer 86 

On Spring Grain 93 

On Wild Land 94 

On Old Pastures 95 

Sickness 96 

Varieties to Raise 89 

Alsike 89 

White 91 

Alfalfa 91 

Mammoth 89 

Growers of 92 

Seed, Crops of 92 

Covering Seed 93 

Farly Sowing of 94 



Index. 277 

Clover, Vitality of Seed 95 

Seed per Acre 96 

Hay 97 

Testing Seed 97 

Corn, Analysis of 5g 

Raising 75 

Selecting Seed 75 

Proper Soil for 7g 

Plowing for 78 

Planting 79 

Cultivation of 81 

Sown Broadcast, Value of 58 

Silage 56 

Harrowing 81 

Harvesting 84 

Cows, Comparison of Two Types of 25 

Cow Barn, Ventilation of 69 

Cow, How to Test a 114 

Cream Testing 113 

Cream, Separating the 153 

Ripening the 156 

Starter for .... 158 

Churning the 162 

Creamery Buildings, (Illustrations) 148, 154 

Creamery building. Dimensions and Cost of 237 

Creamery Foreman, Qualifications of a 258 

Cultivator, How to Use a 82 

Curd, Cutting the 201 

Stirring the 201 

Matting the 203 

Why We Mat 204 

Scalding the 211 

Floating . 213 

Curd Mill, (Illustration) 206 



278 Index. 

Dairy Cows, Exercise for 72 

Care of 66 

Shelter for 67 

Water for 64 

Potatoes as Feed for 65 

Roots as Feed for 66 

Feeds to Raise for 65 

Qualifications of the 15 

Dairy Herd, Grading a 46 

Individual Tests in 33 

Dairy Stock, Advantage in Raising 47 

Raise Your Own 44 

Dairying, Progressive 9 

Success in 11 

Dairy Industry, Trend of the 14 

Dairying in Winter. 74 

Dairy Clubs, Constitution for 243 

By-Laws for 245 

Rules of Order for 248 

Order of Business for 249 

Topics for Discussion in 250 

Subjects for Essays in 251 

Dido, (Illustration) 49 

Drain, How to Make a 233 

Dust, Avoid 128 

Elgin Heater Vat, (Illustration) 160 

Ethel, (Illustration) 26 

Factors, Importance of Different 136 

Factory, Wastes in the 263 

Farm Creameries, (Illustrations) 141, 143 

Earm Creamery, How to Construct a 173 

Farm Separator, (Illustration) 144 

Fat, Measuring the 112 



Index. 279 

Feeds for Different Animals, Different 54 

Oomparative Value of S3 

Feeding Dry Cows 66 

Floor, Cement 232 

Wood 232 

Fortune, (Illustration) 23 

Guernsey Cows, Points of Excellence for 32 

Haecker's Method of Judging a Cow 28 

Home Breeding Pays 49 

Holstein Friesian Cows, Points of Excellence for 32 

Houston, (Illustration) 40 

Ice House 235 

Individual Merit versus Breed 19 

Individual Animals, Product of 17 

Inka, (Illustration) 131 

Introduction 9 

Jersey Cows, Points of Excellence for 29 

Katy Spoflford Corona, (Illustration) 31 

Laws, Inadequate 192 

Legislation, National versus State 194 

Lily Ella, (Illustration) 30' 

Lydia, (Illustration) 36 

Mann's Acid Test, How to Use the 159 

Apparatus 173 

Milk, Comparison of Quantity Given of 38 

Chemical Composition of 59 

Records, How to Keep 41 

Standards in the Several States 271 

Quality of 16 

Sampling 107 

Measuring 107 

Germs in 124 

Cleanliness in Handling 125 



280 Index. 

Milk, Germs in the Fore 132 

How to Detect Tainted 153 

Tempering- the 174 

How to Prepare for the Rennet 199 

Ripening the 210 

Setting- the 211 

Sheet, Forms for 42 

Production, Effects of Contentment on 46 

Cooling- 132 

Oleomargarine, Ingredients in 269 

Olive, (Illustration) 21 

Onwa, (Illustration) . . 29 

Patron and Factoryman, Relation Between 253 

Protein Foods 51 

Cost of 52 

Pumps in the Creamery 236 

Quality, Standard of 195 

Recapitulation 84 

Relation of Fat to Yield of Cheese 225 

Refrigerator 234 

Rennet, Adding the 200 

Test, How to Make the 226 

Silage Corn, When to Cut 57 

Versus Dry Corn 59 

Silos, A Word About 61 

Skim Cheese, Why it Does not Pay to Make 188 

Soiling 61 

Stock-book, Form for Page in 43 

How to Keep a 44 

Succulent Feed 63 

Sweet Briar (Illustration) 20 

Tables, Showing Fat in Various Quantities of Milk 119 

Test, The Babcock 99 



Index. 281 

Test, Benefits of the 99- 

The Composite • 1^^ 

Rennet 225 

Machine, Description of. 106- 

Bottles 10^ 

Machines, (Illustrations) 100, 102, 103- 

Testing Young Stock 10* 

Testing on the Farm 105- 

Labor in • • 1^* 

Heat Required in 116 

Care in ^^ 

Tubs, Line the 1^7 

Types, Experiments with 20- 



DAIRYMEN 




In order to successfully carry out the 
ideas suggested in this book you need 
modern dairy appliances. We are the 
largest manufacturers in this line in 
the world. We publish a catalogue of 
dairy goods called, " A Book for 
Dairymen." We have a catalogue also 
for milk dealers, named, " A Book for 
Milk Dealers." In these books will be 
found everything required for dairy 
plants. We mail these books free to 
all interested. We are always glad to 
answer inquiries. Do not hesitate to 
write us about anything you need. 

CREAMERY PACKAGE 
MFG. CO. 

J, 3 and 5 W, Washington Street, CHICAGO, ILL. 

Branches: Kansas City, Mo.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Waterloo, Iowa; 
Omaha, Neb.; St. Louis, Mo.; Philadelphia, Pa. 



A. H. Barber Mfg. Co. 

229 South Water Street, 

Chicago, 111. 



^ 



Creamery and Dairy Machinery. 

Alpha Cream Separators, 

Combined Churns and Workers, 
Babcock Milk Testers, 

Pasteurizers for Milk and Cream, 
"Kieckhefer" Milk Cans, 
W. & R. Butter Color, 

Hansen's Rennet Extract, 
Seamless Bandages, 

Butter and Cheese Salt,. 
Butter Tubs, Butter Boxes, and Packages of 
every description. Send for price list. 



THE BEST DAIRYMEN 



Demand the best dairy machinery. We have at all times 
recognized that fact, and we pride ourselves upon our 
ability to furnish a line of dairy specialties strictly high 

i grade in every particular. Among other 
things we would call attention to the famous 
SHARPLES 
CREAM SEPARATORS 

We show here but one of our different patterns. We 
manufacture the largest variet}' of any one in the business, 
Write for free catalogue, also circulars descriptive of our 
line of 

Churns, 
Cream Vats, 
Butter Printers, 
Cheese Vats, 
Tread Powers, 
Butter Workers, 
Milk Heaters, 
Babcock Testers, 
Cheese Presses, 
Etc*, Etc*, Etc. 

THE SHARPLES COMPANY, 

28, 30 and 32 So. Canal Street, Chicago, Illinois. 



Established 1891. 

THE ELGIN DAIRY REPORT, 

The Dairy-Market Paper. 

Issued immediately after the close of the Elgin Board 
of Trade every Monday afternoon. Contains full account 
of the Board transactions and market reports from the 
principal Butter, Cheese and Egg centers of the country. 

Subscription Price $1.00 Per Year. 

PARCHMENT BUTTER WRAPS 

Our Inks are thoroughly tested. We print in Red, 
Green, Blue, Brown, or any two of the colors. Send for 
prices, and sample book printed in colors. ' 

HIGH CLASS PRINTING 

Stationery for the Creamery, Cheese Factory and 
Dairy. Blank books to order. Special ruling. Estimates 
furnished. Address 

THE ELGIN DAIRY REPORT, Elgin, Illinois. 



ITftT. 0.9 tool 



/A . 



■ t-U *A IVVI 



